Age periodization educational and methodological material on the topic

The concept of age in psychology

The concept of age includes a number of aspects: 1) Chronological age

, is determined by the life expectancy of a person (according to the passport);
2) Biological age
- a set of biological indicators, the functioning of the body as a whole (circulatory, respiratory, digestive systems, etc.);
3) Psychological age
is a certain level of mental development, which includes: a) mental age To determine the mental age of children from 4 to 16 years old, the Wechsler test is used, which includes verbal and data in a visual (figurative) form of a task. When using it, a total “general intellectual indicator” is obtained. The psychologist calculates IQ - intellectual quotient: mental age x 100% IQ = chronological age b) social maturity - SQ - social intelligence (a person must be adapted to the environment that surrounds him) c) emotional maturity: free-will of emotions, balance, personal maturity. In real life, the individual components of age do not always coincide.

Approaches to periodization

Adaptation to a preschool educational institution (DOU) Read more: Indicators of full psychological development

1.1. Approaches to periodization

The object of preschool pedagogy is the child from birth to entry into school. This rather long (6-7 years) period of a person’s life is divided into two large periods - early age and preschool age. We will divide each period, in turn, into several more stages: early age - into 7 stages, preschool age - into 4. What is the reason for this “fragmentation”? First of all, with the characteristics of the psychophysiological growth and development of children.

The pace and content of a child’s development in the first 7 years of his life are so rapid and varied that in order to trace this development and create conditions adequate to this development, it is indeed necessary to distinguish certain stages and their boundaries. Such detailed consideration and study of age-related changes will be beneficial for the development of personality, as it will allow not to miss significant new formations. But although each child develops according to his “own program,” there are general patterns to which this development is subject: what a child can do at 3 years old is inaccessible to a baby, what is not difficult at 5 years old is impossible at 3 years old, etc. etc. The need to navigate these patterns and somehow order them in relation to development led to the emergence of age periodization. The entire period of a person’s life consists of semantic segments, within which accumulation takes place, causing new formation and a qualitative transition to the next stage [3].

Science has developed several different approaches to age periodization. In each of them, an attempt is made to highlight some single basis that allows us to trace the dynamics of human development and certain, more or less completed stages. For example, P.P. Blonsky based the periodization of childhood on the periods of changing teeth. He argued that dentition - the appearance and change of teeth - not only characterizes the physical growth and strengthening of the body, but is directly related to the mental development of a person, to the process of his socialization. There were other attempts to identify a single basis for considering age-related changes: sexual development (K. Stratz), rate of mental development (A. Gesell), etc.

The most thorough and hence legitimate approach can be considered the one proposed by L. S. Vygotsky: “... only internal changes in development itself, only fractures and turns in its course can provide a reliable basis for determining the main eras in the construction of a child’s personality, which we call ages”[4 ]. As is known, L. S. Vygotsky developed the theory of stable age and crises in development, on the basis of which age periodization is built: newborns, infancy, early age, preschool age.

D.B. Elkonin associated age periodization with a change in the leading type of children's activity. His theory does not contradict Vygotsky’s theory; moreover, it is based on and complements it. The appearance of activity is associated with a certain level of mental development of the child, with his capabilities. Activities gradually replace each other, ensuring complete development.

D.B. Elkonin proposed considering each psychological age based on the following criteria:

Ø Social development situation. This is the system of relationships into which a child enters in society. This is how he navigates the system of social relations, what areas of public life he enters

Ø The main, or leading type of activity of the child during this period. In this case, it is necessary to consider not only the type of activity, but also the structure of activity at the appropriate age and analyze why this particular type of activity is leading.

Ø Main developmental neoplasms. It is important to show how new achievements in development outgrow the social situation and lead to its “explosion” - a crisis.

Ø Crisis. Crises are turning points on the child development curve that separate one age from another.

The separation of a child from an adult at the end of early childhood creates the preconditions for the creation of a new social situation of development. What is it? For the first time, the child goes beyond the boundaries of his family world and establishes relationships with the world of adults. The ideal form with which the child begins to interact is the world of social relations existing in the world of adults. The ideal form, as L. S. Vygotsky believed, is that part of objective reality (higher than the level at which the child is) with which he enters into direct interaction; this is the area that the child is trying to enter. In preschool age, this ideal form becomes the world of adults.

According to D. B. Elkonin, here preschool age revolves around its center around an adult, his functions, his tasks. The adult here acts in a generalized form, as a bearer of social functions in the system of social relations (an adult - dad, doctor, driver, etc.). The contradiction of this social situation of development of D.B. Elkonin sees that the child is a member of society, he does not want to live outside of society, his main need is to live together with the people around him, but this is impossible to achieve in modern historical conditions: the child’s life passes in conditions of indirect, and not direct connection with the world . How is this connection made? There is a large gap between the actual level of development and the ideal form with which the child interacts, therefore the only activity that allows one to model these relationships, engage in already modeled relationships and act within this model is role-playing play.

Play is the leading type of activity for a preschool child. D.B. Elkonin emphasized that the game belongs to the symbolic-modeling type of activity, in which the operational and technical side is minimal, operations are reduced, and objects are conventional. However, play provides an opportunity for such orientation in the external, visible world that no other activity can provide. All types of activities of a preschool child, with the exception of self-service, are modeling in nature. The essence of any modeling, D. B. Elkonin believed, is to recreate an object in another, non-natural material, as a result of which aspects of the object are highlighted that become the subject of special consideration, special orientation. That is why D. B. Elkonin called the game “a giant storehouse of real creative thought of a future person.”

A game is a special form of mastering reality by reproducing it and modeling it. As D. B. Elkonin’s research has shown, play is not a universal form of life for all children, it is a historical education. Play arises only at certain stages of social development, when the child cannot take direct part in the social labor system, when an “empty” period of time arises, when it is necessary to wait for the child to grow up. The child has a tendency to actively enter this life. It is out of this tendency that the game emerges. The child takes the forms of play from the forms of plastic art characteristic of his society. Many researchers connect the problem of the emergence of games with the problem of art.

The unit, the center of the game, is the role that the child takes on. In kindergarten, children's games include all the professions that exist in the surrounding reality. But the most remarkable thing about role-playing play is that, having taken on the function of an adult, the child reproduces his activity in a very generalized manner, in a symbolic manner.

Game actions are actions free from the operational and technical side, these are actions with meanings, they are of a figurative nature.

What is the significance of the symbolism of the game? According to D. B. Elkonin, abstraction from the operational and technical side of objective actions makes it possible to model a system of relations between people. Vivid examples are given in the monograph by D. B. Elkonin [5].

The game needs a friend. If there is no comrade, then actions, although they have meaning, have no meaning. The meaning of human actions is born from the relationship with another person. The evolution of action, according to D.B. Elkonin, goes the following way: a child eats with a spoon - feeds with a spoon - feeds a doll with a spoon - feeds a doll with a spoon, like a mother. On this path, the action becomes more and more schematized, all feeding turns into care, into a relationship with another person. The line of development of action: from the operational scheme of action to human action that has meaning in another person; from a single action to its meaning. In the game, the meaning of human actions is born (it is for another person) - this, according to D. B. Elkonin, is the greatest humanistic significance of the game.

The last component in the game structure is the rules. In play, for the first time, a new form of pleasure for the child arises - the joy that he acts as the rules require. In the game, the child cries like a patient and rejoices like a player. This is not just the satisfaction of a desire, it is a line that continues at school age.

So, play is an orientation activity in the sense of human activity. It is indicative in its essence. That is why it brings the child to the ninth wave of his development and becomes the leading activity in preschool age.

A developed form of role-playing game, which has been deeply studied in the studies of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin, A. V. Zaporozhets, A. P. Usova, etc., allows us to understand the features of the origin and development of the game , its types and structure in modern children living in societies with a low level of socio-economic development, just as the developed form of any structure serves as the key to understanding the low level of its development.

Under the scientific guidance of D. B. Elkonin and L. F. Obukhova, graduate student from Colombia K. Otalora carried out a unique study that analyzed the characteristics of play in children of the Arhuaco Indian community[6]. This study proves that the game, the origins of which are related to the socio-economic level of development of society and the cultural traditions of the people, evolves along with society. In modern industrial society, play is not the only type of activity for children. Other types of activities in preschool age: visual activities; basic labor; perception of a fairy tale; teaching.

The visual activity of a child has long attracted the attention of artists, teachers and psychologists (F. Frebel, I. Luke, G. Kershensteiner, N. A. Rybnikov, R. Arnheim, etc.). Children's drawings are studied from different points of view. Basic research focuses mainly on the age-related evolution of children's drawings (G. Kerschensteiner, I. Lücke). Other authors followed the line of psychological analysis of the drawing process (E. Meiman, N. A. Rybnikov). The next category of works on children's drawings followed the line of measuring giftedness in drawing. Researchers typically collected large numbers of children's drawings and ranked them by degree of perfection. A number of authors devoted their works to analyzing the connection between mental development and drawing (F. Goodenough). A high correlation between these abilities was shown: the better the drawing, the higher the mental talent. Based on this, F. Goodenough recommends using drawing as a test for mental development. According to A. M. Schubert, however, there may be another explanation: the higher the drawing in all respects, the more characteristic it is, but not for the life of the mind, but for the life of emotion. A.F. Lazursky and other psychologists also emphasized the connection between the child’s personality and his drawing. Despite all these various approaches, drawing from the point of view of its psychological significance has not yet been sufficiently studied. This is associated with a large number of contradictory theories that explain the psychological nature of children's drawings.

In the domestic system of preschool education, systematic teaching of drawing has been introduced in kindergartens. As a result of research by N.P. Sakulina and E.A. Flerina, another stage in the development of children's drawing was established - drawing by observation. According to N.P. Sakulina, for the emergence of the stage of figurative drawing, the formation of skills in observing objects, and not the drawing technique, is of great importance. If K. Bühler believed that drawings from observation are the result of extraordinary abilities, then the works of N. P. Sakulina and E. A. Flerina show the role that learning to draw plays in this.

The periodization of visual activity represents a unified normative idea of ​​the development of children's drawing. This is like the arithmetic mean norm. Therefore, an important addition to periodization are typological studies that make it possible to record typical development options.

N.P. Sakulina notes that by the age of 4-5, two types of draftsmen are distinguished: those who prefer to draw individual objects (they primarily develop the ability to depict) and those who are inclined to develop a plot, narrative (their depiction of the plot in the drawing is supplemented by speech and acquires a playful character )[7].

L. S. Vygotsky loved to repeat the words of B. Spinoza: “No great work is done without great feeling.” And in this regard, the value of artistic education is not that it creates knowledge or forms skills, but that it creates, as L. S. Vygotsky emphasized, “the background of life, the background of life activity... it expands, deepens and clears emotional life a child awakening for the first time and getting into a serious mood”[8].

As D. B. Elkonin emphasized, productive activity, including drawing, is carried out by a child with a certain material, and each time the embodiment of the plan is carried out using different visual means, in different materials (“house” from cubes and “house” in the drawing ). Products of visual activity are not just symbols denoting an object, they are models of reality. And each time some new characteristics of reality appear in the model. In the model, individual features are separated from the real object, abstracted, and categorical perception begins its independent life.

Another function of children's drawings is its expressive function. In the drawing, the child expresses his attitude to reality; in it one can immediately see what is most important for the child and what is secondary; emotional and semantic centers are always present in the drawing. Through drawing, you can control the child’s emotional and semantic perception.

As Z. Freud emphasizes, all children want to be big; this tendency is extremely pronounced in children’s lives, hence the development of playful forms of activity. In the game, the child models areas of human life that cannot be modeled in any other way. A game is a form of activity in which children model the meaning of human existence and the forms of relationships that exist in society. This is the center and the whole point of the game. A game is a form of activity in which children, creating a special game situation, replacing some objects with others, replacing real actions with abbreviated ones, reproduce the basic meanings of human activity and assimilate those forms of relationships that will be realized later. That is why play is a leading activity; it allows the child to interact with aspects of life that the child cannot enter into in real life.

In addition to play and visual activities, perception of a fairy tale also becomes an activity in preschool age. K. Bühler called preschool age the age of fairy tales. This is the most favorite literary genre for children.

S. Buhler specifically studied the role of fairy tales in child development. In her opinion, the heroes of fairy tales are simple and typical, they are devoid of any individuality. Often they don't even have names. Their characteristics are limited to two or three qualities that are understandable to children's perception. But these characteristics are taken to an absolute degree: unprecedented kindness, courage, resourcefulness. At the same time, the heroes of fairy tales do everything that ordinary people do: eat, drink, work, get married, etc. All this contributes to a better understanding of the fairy tale by the child[9].

B. M. Teplov, considering the nature of a child’s artistic perception, pointed out that empathy, mental assistance to the hero of the work constitutes “the living soul of artistic perception”[10]. Empathy is similar to the role a child takes on in a game. D. B. Elkonin emphasized that a classic fairy tale most closely corresponds to the effective nature of a child’s perception of a work of art; it outlines the route of the actions that the child must carry out, and the child follows this route.

What are the main trends in the development of mental processes in preschool age? As has been repeatedly emphasized, all mental processes are special forms of objective actions. In recent years, there has been a change in ideas about mental development due to the identification of two parts in action: indicative and executive. The studies of A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin, P. Ya. Galperin made it possible to present mental development as a process of separating the indicative part of the action from the action itself and enriching the indicative part of the action. How is the orienting part of an action separated from the executive part? How is action regulated?

A.R. Luria studied the role of speech in the regulation of behavior: through words, a “mental” path is created that the child must follow. Based on the speech, a course of action can be constructed in advance, and then it can be implemented. The way speech influences the implementation of an objective action signals whether the orienting part has “become separated” from the executive part or not[11].

In summary, the following can be noted:

1) there is a division of action into indicative and executive parts;

2) in preschool age, the indicative part of the action is separated from the executive;

3) the orientation part itself arises from the material, practical, executive part and in preschool age is of a manual or sensory nature;

4) orientation activity in preschool age develops extremely intensively. Therefore, when we talk about the development of perception in preschool age, we mean the development of methods and means of orientation. In preschool age, as studies by L.A. Wenger have shown, sensory standards (color, shape, size) are mastered and corresponding objects are correlated with these standards [23].

As studies by D. B. Elkonin have shown, at this age the standards of phonemes of the native language are mastered: “Children begin to hear them in a categorical manner.” Standards are an achievement of human culture; they are the “grid” through which we look at the world. Thanks to the assimilation of standards, the process of perceiving reality begins to acquire an indirect character. The use of standards makes it possible to move from a subjective assessment of what is perceived to its objective characteristics.

So, what are the main psychological neoplasms of preschool age?

1. The emergence of the first schematic outline of a complete children's worldview. A child cannot live in chaos. The child tries to put everything he sees in order, to see the natural relationships into which such an unstable world around him fits. J. Piaget showed that a child in preschool age develops an artificalist worldview: everything that surrounds the child, including natural phenomena, is the result of human activity. This worldview is linked to the entire structure of preschool age, in the center of which is a person.

A study conducted by L.F. Obukhova together with N.B. Shumakova showed that children in the late 70s, like J. Piaget’s subjects in the 20s, use moral, animistic and artificial reasons to explain natural phenomena: the sun moves so that everyone is warm and light; it wants to walk and move, etc. From the age of five, the real flowering of the ideas of “little philosophers” about the origin of the moon, sun, and stars begins. For the explanation, knowledge gleaned from television programs is used: about astronauts, lunar rovers, rockets, satellites, even about spots on the sun, but behind this new content there is the same artifactualism[12].

Let's give examples.

Marina K. (7 years old). “Where does the sun come from in the sky?” - “They probably did it.” "Who?" “I think it was made by astronauts or pilots.” “Where is the moon from?” - “It was also made only by astronauts.” “Why only astronauts?” - “Because they can fly to the moon. The moon is higher than the sun." “Where do the stars come from?” “They were also made by astronauts from shiny iron. Then they cleaned it”...

Gosha S. (6 years 5 months). “Where do the stars in the sky come from?” - “From golden papers. The astronauts threw them there...

Andrey O. (6 years 9 months). “Where do dreams come from?” – “This is already a difficult question. Some creature appears in your head, and there it shows you dreams, like cartoons, and you dream about them all night.”

Misha M. (4 years 3 months). "Where does the wind come from?" “It’s very difficult to tell. I saw in the new film that the boy was blowing out of a pipe.”

Katya E. (4 years 4 months). “Why does the wind blow?” - “Because the trees sway.” "Where does the wind come from?" – “Because there is a man sitting in the sky, and I watched a film of a man sitting and dust; and snowflakes dust.”

While constructing a picture of the world, the child invents and invents a theoretical concept. He builds schemes of a global nature, worldview schemes. D.B. Elkonin notices here a paradox between a low level of intellectual capabilities and a high level of cognitive needs. When a child comes to school, he is forced from global, world problems to move on to elementary things, then a discrepancy is revealed between cognitive needs and what the child is taught[13].

2. The emergence of primary ethical authorities: “What is good and what is bad.” These ethical authorities grow alongside aesthetic ones. “Beautiful cannot be bad.”

3. The emergence of subordination of motives. At this age, one can already observe the predominance of deliberate actions over impulsive ones. Overcoming immediate desires is determined not only by the expectation of reward or punishment on the part of an adult, but also by the expressed promise of the child himself (the principle of the “given word”). Thanks to this, such personality qualities as perseverance and the ability to overcome difficulties are formed; a sense of duty towards other people also arises[14].

4. The emergence of voluntary behavior. Voluntary behavior is behavior mediated by a certain idea. D. B. Elkonin noted that in preschool age, an image orienting behavior first exists in a specific visual form, but then it becomes more and more generalized, appearing in the form of a rule or norm. Based on the formation of voluntary behavior in a child, according to D. B. Elkonin, a desire to control himself and his actions appears [15].

5. The emergence of personal consciousness - the emergence of consciousness of one’s limited place in the system of relations with adults. The desire to carry out socially significant and socially valued activities. If you ask a three-year-old child: “What are you?” He will answer: “I am big.” If you ask a seven-year-old child: “What are you?”, he will answer: “I’m small.”

The preschooler becomes aware of the possibilities of his actions, he begins to understand that he cannot do everything (the beginning of self-esteem). When talking about self-awareness, they often mean awareness of one’s personal qualities (good, kind, evil, etc.). In this case, we are talking about awareness of one’s place in the system of social relations. 3 years – external “I myself” 6 years – personal self-awareness. And here the external turns into internal[16].

Adaptation to a preschool educational institution (DOU) Read more: Indicators of full psychological development

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The main groups of periodization of development in domestic and foreign psychology

There are different age periods of development. They distinguish different periods, these periods are called differently, the age boundaries are different, because their authors used different criteria as the basis. L.S. Vygotsky identified 3 groups of periodizations: I. For the first group

Characteristic is the construction of periodization ON THE BASIS OF AN EXTERNAL BUT CONNECTED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS ITSELF.
An example is periodization created according to the biogenetic principle
.
1) Periodization by Rene Zazzo
(education and education systems coincide with the stages of childhood): 0-3 years old early childhood 3-5 years old preschool age 6-12 years old primary school education 12-16 years old secondary school education 17 and older higher or university education 2)
Pavel Petrovich Blonsky
chose an objective, easily observable sign associated with the essential features of the constitution of a growing organism - the appearance and change of teeth.
0-8 months - 2.5 years - toothless childhood 2.5 - 6.5. years - childhood of baby teeth 6.5 and older - childhood of permanent teeth (before the appearance of wisdom teeth) II. For the second group, they are typically built on the basis of ONE, RANDOMLY SELECTED by the author, INTERNAL criterion. 1) Sigmund Freud
considered the main source, the engine of human behavior, to be the unconscious, saturated with sexual energy. Child sexuality is understood by 3. Freud broadly, as everything that brings bodily pleasure - stroking, sucking, emptying the intestines, etc. 0 - 1 year oral stage (erogenous zone - mucous membrane of the mouth and lips). The child gets pleasure when he sucks milk, and in the absence of writing - his own finger or some object. People begin to divide into optimists and pessimists, and gluttony and greed may develop. In addition to the unconscious “It”, the “I” is formed).

1 - 3 years anal stage (the erogenous zone moves into the intestinal mucosa). Neatness, neatness, secrecy, and aggressiveness are formed. Many demands and prohibitions arise, as a result of which the last, third authority begins to form in the child’s personality - the “Super-I” as the embodiment of social norms, internal censorship, conscience).

3 - 5 years phallic stage (the highest stage of childhood sexuality). The genitals become the leading erogenous zone. If until now children's sexuality was directed towards themselves, now children begin to experience sexual attachment to adults, boys to their mother (Oedipus complex), girls to their father (Electra complex). This is the time of the most stringent prohibitions and intensive formation of the “Super-I”.

From 5 to 12 years, the latent stage temporarily interrupts the sexual development of the child. The drives emanating from the “Id” are well controlled. Children's sexual experiences are repressed, and the child's interests are directed to communicating with friends, schooling, etc.

12 - 18 years old, the genital stage corresponds to the actual sexual development of the child. All erogenous zones are united, and a desire for normal sexual communication appears. 2) Stages of development of intelligence according to J. Piaget

.
The process of development of intelligence is a succession of three large periods, during which the formation of three main intellectual structures occurs (see the simplified diagram given in the table). First, sensorimotor structures are formed - systems of sequentially performed material actions. Then structures of specific operations arise - systems of actions performed in the mind, but based on external, visual data. Even later, the formation of formal logical operations occurs. The main criterion is intelligence. - from 0 to 1.5-2 years sensorimotor stage
.
The child begins to separate himself from the outside world, and an understanding of the constancy and stability of external objects arises. At this time, speech is not developed and there are no ideas, and behavior is based on the coordination of perception and movement (hence the name “sensorimotor”). - from 2 to 7 years, pre-operational stage - thinking with the help of ideas. A strong figurative beginning with insufficient development of verbal thinking leads to a kind of childish logic. At the stage of preoperative ideas, the child is not capable of evidence or reasoning. Thinking is guided by the external signs of an object. The child does not see things in their internal relationships, he considers them as they are given by direct perception. (He thinks the wind is blowing because the trees are swaying.) - from 7 to 12 years, the stage of concrete operations - the emergence of elementary logical reasoning. - from 12 years old - the stage of formal operations - the formation of the ability to think logically, use abstract concepts, and perform operations in the mind. 3) Kohlberg's periodization, based on the study of the level of human moral development.
The 3 levels and 6 stages of moral development identified in Kohlberg’s research correspond to biblical ideas about a person’s orientation to fear, shame and conscience when choosing an action.
Level I: Fear of punishment (up to 7 years).
1. Fear of the right of force.
2. Fear of being deceived and not receiving enough benefits. Level II: Shame in front of other people (13 years old).
3. Shame in front of comrades and immediate circle.
4. Shame of public condemnation, negative assessment of large social groups. Level III: Conscience (after 16 years).
5. The desire to live up to your moral principles. 6. The desire to conform to one’s system of moral values.

1) E. Erickson

. Periodization of personal development

Stage of development

Views on the process of human development

In psychology, there are several points of view on the process of child development. Some scientists believe that this process is continuous, others consider it discrete.

Supporters of continuous development expressed the position that the process goes on without stopping. It neither accelerates nor slows down, nor can we talk about the presence of boundaries that separate one stage from another.

If we turn to the opinion of adherents of discrete development, then it is proceeding unevenly, sometimes accelerating, sometimes slowing down. It is characterized by the main (leading) development factor. For this reason, it is important to identify periods of development that are qualitatively different from each other. Scientists believe that children must sequentially go through all stages of development, without skipping any of them or getting ahead of themselves.

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Today, preference is given to a discrete development position. In general, all periodizations are divided into 3 groups, the first of which includes periodizations based on external criteria (related to the development process).



The problem of age-related periodization of mental development.
ANSWERS TO GOSES IN SPECIALTY 030301.65 “PSYCHOLOGY”
36. The problem of age-related periodization of mental development.

The search for the scientific basis for the periodization of a child’s mental development acts as a fundamental problem of developmental psychology, on the development of which the strategy for building an integral system of educating growing people largely depends. There are different age periods of development. They distinguish different periods, these periods are called differently, the age limits are different, since their authors laid different criteria as the basis.

L. S. Vygotsky identified three groups of periodizations:
1.
The first group is characterized by the construction of periodization
based on an external
criterion, but related to the development process itself.
An example is periodizations created according to the biogenetic principle. The representative of preformationism, K. Bühler,
believed that the stages of child development are instinct, training, and intellect.
In Rene Zazzo's
, systems of education and training coincide with the stages of childhood.
P.P. Blonsky
proposed to distinguish between toothless childhood, deciduous childhood and the period of permanent teeth based on the change of teeth (a physiological sign) in children.
2.
The second group is characterized by the fact that periodizations are built on the basis of one
internal criterion, arbitrarily chosen by the author. Z. Freud
considered the development of a child only through the prism of his puberty.
L. Kohlberg's
periodization is based on the study of the level of moral development.
In E. Erikson's
, eight stages of human life are distinguished, which represent a series of critical periods.
J. Piaget
proposed age periodization based on changes in the mental development of children.
3.
The third group of periodizations distinguishes periods
based on essential criteria and characteristics.
Such periodizations include the periodization of
V. I. Slobodchikov, L. S. Vygotsky, D. B. Elkonin.
All these and other attempts at classification have not been confirmed in specific results of studying the mental development of children. The problem of identifying the basis for age periodization remains relevant today: the lack of proper theoretical justification prevents the solution of questions about the driving forces of mental development, what the actual psychological content of the corresponding age is, what are the internal criteria for periodization, identifying age boundaries, what real changes occur in the child’s psyche influenced by changes in his social situation.

Periodization of mental development of L. S. Vygotsky.

Considering the issue
of periodization of mental development,
L.S. Vygotsky noted that it is necessary to highlight objective grounds indicating a change in age and the child’s transition to a new stage of development.
He introduced the concepts of psychological new formations
and
the social situation of development
(the nature of the relationship between the child and society that develops in a given period). L.S. Vygotsky believed that the study of transitions from one period of development to another makes it possible to reveal the internal contradictions of development. For L.S. Vygotsky, the central point in considering the dynamics of mental development was the analysis of the social situation of development. The collapse of the old and the emergence of the foundations of a new social situation of development, according to Vygotsky, constitutes the main content of critical ages.

Highlighting two development paths:

critical (occurs suddenly, proceeds violently) and lytic (calm), Vygotsky noted that the critical period has positive changes - a transition from some forms of behavior to new forms.
He identified three stages in it: 1) pre-critical - rejection of previous forms of relationships and behavior; 2) critical - a search for new forms of behavior; 3) post-critical - practicing learned forms of behavior. The critical period can simply be transitional under the appropriate situation of development and change relationships with adults. L. S. Vygotsky identified the ages of about 1 year, 3 years, 6-7 years, the neonatal period and adolescence as critical periods of childhood. Alternation of stable and critical periods according to L. S. Vygotsky: Newborn crisis.
Younger age (2 months - 1 year).
Contradictions between the infant's maximum sociality and minimum communication opportunities. Year 1 crisis.
Early childhood (1-3 years).
Activity “serious game”
, object-tool-based.
Gesture, walking, speech appear. Crisis 3 years.
Preschool age (3-7 years).
A tendency towards emancipation (separation from an adult) and a tendency not towards an affective, but towards a volitional form of behavior. The emergence of “I myself.” Crisis 7 years.
School age (8-12 years).
Loss of childish spontaneity due to differentiation of internal and external life. The emergence of generalizations, the logic of feelings, experiences acquire meaning, and self-esteem appears. Crisis 13 years.
Puberty (14-18 years). A sense of adulthood - a sense of one’s personality, the development of self-awareness.

Periodization of mental development by D. B. Elkonin.
When constructing the periodization, D. B. Elkonin was based on the following:
- age-related development is a general change in personality, the formation of a new plan of reflection, a change in activity and life position, the establishment of special relationships with others, the formation of new motives of behavior and value systems; - on a dialectical idea of ​​the development process (determined by internal contradictions, purposeful, uneven with critical and lytic periods); - on a specific historical understanding of the nature of childhood (each historical era has its own periodization of childhood); — periodization should be based on the patterns of development of activity and a growing person.

Hence, the entire mental life of a child is considered as a process of continuous change of activities, and at each age stage a “leading activity”

, with the assimilation of the structures of which the most important psychological new formations of a given age are associated.
Within the system of leading activity, D. B. Elkonin discovers a hidden dialectical contradiction between two aspects of leading activity - the operational-technical one, related to the development of the “child-thing”
, and the emotional-motivational one, related to the development of the
“child-adult”
.

In the general sequence of leading activities, activities with preferential development of one side or the other alternate alternately. Each era of childhood consists of two periods that are naturally interconnected. In the first period, the assimilation of tasks, motives, norms of human activity and the development of the motivational-need sphere takes place, in the second - the assimilation of methods of action with objects and the formation of operational and technical capabilities. The transition from one era to the next occurs when a discrepancy arises between the operational and technical capabilities of the child and the tasks and motives of activity on the basis of which they were formed.

1st era.

Infancy (up to 1 year) - the leading activity is direct emotional communication.
Early childhood is an object-manipulative activity. 2nd era.
Preschool age - role-playing game.
Junior schoolchild - educational activities. 3 era.
Teenager - intimate and personal communication. Senior school age - educational and professional activities.

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