Social status of men and women in modern society

The role of mother

It is this role that women can take on in a relationship with a man, and the reason for this may be her inner conviction that a man is not capable of... ironing, cleaning, cooking, and so on, even to the point of earning money for the family. She treats him like a child - she guides him and tells him what he should do, praises him, and at the same time takes on more responsibility.

But what else could be the reasons for this woman’s behavior?

Psychologists highlight the following:

1. Her internal readiness to become a mother is how, at the subconscious level, a woman “practices” in her future role.
2. So she tries to earn his love, to become necessary and irreplaceable.
3. She believes that a man needs this, he is used to it.

But in the end, this can lead to a man becoming annoyed and simply leaving his lady love. What to do about it?

1. Don't do for your man what he can and should do himself.
2. Treat him, communicate as a competent person, but when you need help, ask.
3. Do not speak from the position of the mother, and entrust him with the role of protector, breadwinner, without judging him for his mistakes.

A man learns from his mistakes, but not from the opinions of others.

Women's roles to play to be happy

Yes, definitely. To do this, we need to look into the past and look at what happened in different periods.

1. Girl from birth to 6-8 years old

Ask your mom what happened to you in the first hours after giving birth? Was everything smooth and the birth natural and quick, or were you fighting for life? The answers to these questions will show you how you win in life.

The first experience determines whether a woman will strive for success alone or whether she will need other people and technology around her.

It has been noticed that children born by cesarean section are less motivated and interested in any victories. Also, the birth experience will unconsciously determine a woman’s attitude towards pregnancy and motherhood in general.

How was the first year of life? If during this period there were serious quarrels between parents or difficult moves, then the little girl could develop distrust of the world and other people (in particular, men). And this means that in adulthood you will need to deal with this topic.

If in the first year the child was cared for, fed, touched, taught to express emotions and desires, then at an older age such a woman will be naturally feminine, open and accepting.

From one to seven years, a child learns to realize his worth, confidence in the Internet, his “separateness,” and builds his boundaries with strangers. How did this stage go for you? Who helped you at this age?

I have heard many times from child psychologists that the development of a child, especially girls, is extremely badly affected by loading a 3-5 year old child with learning several foreign languages ​​and reading. From the point of view of archetypal cycles, this is explained simply:

our confidence and worth will be directly related to social and academic achievements...

And that means that just a little - and a 40-year-old woman goes for another diploma, hoping in this way to feel valuable.

The first class is a crisis (each period will end in a crisis, and it is from this that the transition to the second level will occur). How did you break up with your “mother’s skirt”? Was the school welcoming and your classmates interesting? What helped you integrate into the new environment?

2. Teenage girl from 6-8 to 14-15 years old

The shadow side of the Daughter archetype : you need to move from the mastered role of everyone’s favorite to a little robber. Primary school is a time of socialization, when a girl learns to communicate, including with those whom she did not choose. Finds her place in a group of children and understands her role: an excellent student for cheating, a girl with whom everyone is in love, or the storm of the area, taking away chewing gum and pocket money.

First love, serious friendship, teachers who are “wrong” - a girl develops her own opinion and attitude towards what is offered to her.

How was this period for you? How was your relationship with your children? What role did you play in the class? If you changed schools at this age, why and did you correct the mistakes of your past reputation at the new school? Who did you listen to? Did you accept or challenge what your teachers taught you?

During this period, the girl needs to learn to be responsible: to see the consequences of her actions and be willing to accept reward or punishment for them.

If there are younger children in the family, and the girl is made responsible for looking after them, then she may be “pulled” into the Mother archetype too early.

The ideal option: help mom, keep an eye on the younger ones (responsibility training), but sometimes have the opportunity to refuse this and go about your own business. If a girl blames a broken flower pot on a dog and blames the teacher for a bad grade, then she will live through this period later.

The crisis of this age is puberty, the first menstruation and understanding oneself as a woman. During this period, the girl understands that her mother is not a goddess, but one of the adult women: in some ways she is right, in others she is wrong - and psychological separation occurs.

It also happens that parents did not allow the child to rebel: they punished him for showing disobedience, did not allow him to make mistakes and see the results of his misdeeds, did not allow him to go for walks on his own, and so on. Then the girl calms down and remains a “mother’s daughter,” accepting only the light side of this archetype and refusing the powerful resources of the dark side.

In adulthood, this manifests itself as a lack of understanding of one’s desires: “tell me what to do / who to marry / what do I want?”

Attachment to mother and her opinion: from choosing clothes to activities in free time. Lack of understanding of her strength and value: after all, the girl did not face trials and did not understand that she is capable of much and, in general, wow!

It’s interesting: during this period, children begin to actively lie; from the age of three our mirror neurons allow us to do this, but here the lie is multi-step and sophisticated. How, to whom and about what did you lie during this period? “This is something that may still make you afraid of being rejected today.” Also look at what you did and were interested in during these years: this is the best profession for you.

3. Girl from 14-15 to 21-23 years old

The bright side of the Beloved archetype , the key theme of this period is choice. The ability to consider, evaluate, make decisions, select and accept results - all independently.

During these years there is still so little experience, but important events occur in a woman’s life: first sexual relationships, earned money, choice of profession. As with birth, the first experience will influence later life, but it can be rethought if something goes wrong.

For example, if the first money was earned hard or, on the contrary, received “for free,” then later you will need to deal with the psychology of this issue and work with your attitudes.

The best thing adults can give during these years is a broader view of the world (telling it as it happens) and encouraging small mistakes.

The worst thing is the state of finality and the “travelled path”: you have made a choice and hold on to it; you promised, keep it; you agreed - you can no longer change your mind; You've already done so much - finish it.

Like in chess: if you touch a piece, move. And it turns out that after the first month of dating the boy, the girl is disappointed, but is afraid of offending him and does not know how to propose separation. A second-year student realizes that she has chosen the wrong university, but her parents insist that she needs to finish her studies.

If there really was no search for oneself, as such, and the choice of a man or profession turned out to be imperfect (and more often than not, this is the case), then at an older age a woman will either find her own strategy of trial, error and solutions. Or he will try to avoid decisions in principle, shift it to others, and delay until the last minute, until the situation is resolved by itself.

The crisis of this period comes as a result of taking responsibility in all areas: from alcohol and casinos to deciding where to work and with whom to live. The rebel girl also had freedom, but rather, “freedom from,” here “freedom for,” not just doing something the other way around, but expressing her desires through it. 3D freedom: physical, material and psychological.

If at this age you did not become free for any reason, then allow yourself now to return there and replay the elections that may be burdening and unsatisfactory for you.

By the way, it was during this period that the style techniques laid down accompany a woman for many years. Maybe it's time to reconsider them?

4. Young woman from 21-23 to 28-30 years old

The dark side of the Beloved archetype. The theme of trials and struggle for the perfect choice, the first big crisis in life. At the previous stage, the woman searched, tried and chose, as if touching the water in the sea with her toes, and now it’s time to test the strength of her decision. Through struggle, difficulties and competition, she proves, first of all to herself, and at the same time to other people, what she is worth.

One of the traps of this period is to say that “a man must” and further down the list: earn money, protect from ill-wishers, woo a woman. Or rather, a man can do all this if he is now in the same phase, but what if he went through it earlier? Or is it just to come in the future?

This period helps the young woman become mature, gives her the strength and aggression of a tigress, teaches her to earn again what she has lost: lost money, a torn dress, a tarnished reputation.

The second trap of pseudo-femininity is to decide “oh well”: not to return the man you love, not to work hard at work, to want everything to work out by itself, and if on the second day of the diet you want a bun, then it’s a bad diet.

At this time, the woman looks back at her friends and wonders the meaning of life: young mothers worry about an unfinished career; career women about not getting married and having children; creative about instability; materialists about the need to learn to draw and play music. Therefore, the third dead end will be to get carried away by other people’s dreams and values, and the temptation is great - after all, the years go by and it’s so scary not to catch up with the main thing.

If you are going through this period now, then the “most important thing” can be seen in yourself at the age of hobbies from 6-8 to 14-15 years.

5. Woman from 28-30 to 35-37 years old

The bright side of the Mother archetype: calm down, relax, become happy with what you have. Remember the themes that were in a woman’s life at earlier stages. She socialized, learned to make decisions, defend what she chose and fight to the end... and now the time has come to meet femininity.

Of course, if a woman is not satisfied with her personal relationships or profession, she can change them, but the wisdom of this stage is to take her previous experience with her into all future changes.

Don’t start from scratch, don’t chase achievements and don’t do everything yourself, but allow other people (fairy-tale heroines have magical helpers) to share your experience, learn from you and understand your strength.

In the Mistress archetype, a woman trained in creating paired relationships: me and a man, me and work, me and a child. At this stage, her gaze widens, from a flashlight beam to a round lamp. It becomes less important for her to understand something herself, but to help others see themselves in her light. She does not help others directly, does not spend her time and energy to get someone out of a difficult situation - no, she simply lives, follows her own path and shines for herself, which does not prevent others from warming up or seeing something.

What exactly does she inspire? Difficult question. If in the early stages she became a mother, then she realizes this event and decides to create a business project that solves her problem personally and can help other mothers. If at the level of the Mistress archetype the results are quite quick, and the projects are short, then development can take several years and you need to be patient in order to get what you need with small and large adjustments.

If a woman built a career in the early stages, then here she will also want to transform her experience into creativity. It doesn’t matter whether she opens her own business or, on the contrary, goes to work for someone, her attitude from “give me” will become maternal, caring and aware.

Such a woman also helps a man to understand his path: he does something, achieves, receives. What for? What is its purpose and uniqueness? Such a woman helps him find meaning, and therefore gain inspiration for a new campaign, voyage or battle, after which he will return to their home with gifts.

Taking care of others, she takes care of herself; motherhood has expanded her personal boundaries to the size of a family, a company or an entire state. She is happy when those around her are happy, and she knows how to make it happen.

The crisis of this period is that she, as the mistress of her land, must from time to time get rid of weeds: unnecessary but beautiful things in the attic; workers who are good people, but do not produce the desired results; ideas that captivate you, but threaten to gobble up all your reserves for the winter... And this is difficult, because on the bright side of the archetype you want to be good and sweet to everyone.

6. Adult woman from 35-37 to 42-44 years old

During this period, a woman experiences the dark side of the Mother archetype , perhaps for the first time in her life she pays close attention to her inner world.

If at the previous level children were born, but here they become independent and even adults. If a good business has been created, then it scales from a room in the basement to a large office, from an office to a network, then to other cities and countries. The time comes to let go of what was the essence of you, but the woman at this time is still full of energy and creative strength. She needs to find pleasure in active anticipation, pleasant solitude.

The main theme of this level is to understand that your value is not what you can do, how you care and help others, and not your beauty of body and face, but something completely different.

The ability to be surprised? Attitude to life? Feel people? It's time to master a new talent and add it to your previous experience to gain a new identity. Relationships with your spouse, parents, children and friends also change - this is a living process, and for a harmonious life you do not need to hold on to old formats, but creatively rethink and create something new, perhaps unacceptable and indecent at an early age.

If the previous stages were not completed, then this period can be very bitter.

Didn’t receive warmth and trust in the world in the Daughter archetype? - may feverishly search for a new profession without using the experience of past occupations for his development, compete with young girls “in their field” and suffer bitterly from inadequacy.

The woman has not mastered the lessons of the Beloved? - here she will suffer from wrinkles on her face and changing body proportions, undergo plastic surgery and buy youthful clothes, because apart from her appearance she does not know how to seduce another person, how to be interesting and bright for herself.

If she has not lived the bright side of her Mother, she will strive with all her might to keep her children close to her, not to allow them to develop, grow up and live their own lives (it’s the same with business).

The crisis of this period, which gives rise to the transition to the next archetype, is that a woman answers for herself the question “who am I, what do I want, what do I do and why?” and begins to realize her real dream, since she has already completed all social tasks and there are no more excuses left.

7. Mature woman from 42-44 to 49-51

The light side of the Mentor archetype . A woman’s social activity aimed at her own success decreases, but her involvement in her personal development increases. Travel, intimate conversations, a new craft for the soul. As you remember, at the previous stage the woman thought about her dream, now she already has time for this and still has a lot of strength and inspiration.

Feminine wisdom and royal dignity, which are formed thanks to previously lived archetypes, make this woman a welcome guest in all structures where a balanced opinion and experience are important: education, medicine, politics, investment structures. Even if she has not managed people before, they will begin to turn to her and listen to her advice.

If the dark side of the Mother was lived correctly, then such a woman got rid of friendship out of habit, released her children into adulthood and achieved new sincerity with her husband. She can enter into a new relationship, and at this level the formal side of love, the stamp in the passport and the opinion of her friends will not matter.

In the same cycle, a woman’s parents die, and it is a shock that life has an end. But it is important to accept that now you are the “older generation” and live your life without other people’s projections and assessments.

At the same age, a woman may begin to experience her first serious illnesses, and archetypes here can also be a clue: the gynecological sphere speaks of an unlived Mistress, a tumor of a Daughter.

And if the acceptance of life in which there is death and illness has occurred and lessons have been learned, then the Bright Mentor uses the gifts of previously lived archetypes: she becomes curious and cheerful like a Daughter; sharp-tongued and passionate, like a Mistress; creating and helping, like a Mother; and to this is added the wisdom and holistic view of the world of the Mentor. She rethinks her life goals and her inner circle. The daily feeling of the pricelessness of each day and the people who are nearby - this is her mantra!

8. Wise woman from 49-51 to infinity

The dark side of the Mentor archetype. If a woman lived her previous periods in a timely and harmonious manner, then this one can become the longest and most fulfilling in her life. Why? Duration is due to the achievements of medicine, and fullness is due to the fact that we do not forget the experience and lessons of the previous archetype when we move to a new one, therefore all the qualities and resources of the early years accumulate.

Unfortunately, almost no one manages to live up to these years as “excellent students”; especially often a woman gets stuck in the Mother archetype: she feeds, takes care of, reminds them to put on a hat, supports her children with money and unnecessary advice...

This happens because, apart from rare books and films about older women whom we want to focus on, we know very little, and the role of the Mother is visual and socially supported.

At this stage, grandchildren appear; if a woman has not found herself, she strives to be needed and lives for them and her grown-up children. The second scenario, if the previous archetypes were not filled in, the woman begins to live them in every possible form, including through clothes, “acting out” for the past, trying to regain her lost youth.

If the bright side of the Mentor was rejected and the woman was not ready to look at herself and relationships in a new way, then she can become fixated on the past, begin to blame others for the mistakes of her life, and become a petty, envious and greedy old woman.

In the prosperous version of this period, a rethinking and awareness of life occurs, the conclusions from which help to continue to look for answers to important questions in books and travels. He is looking for new meanings for his life and the universe in general. Everyone is becoming freer from social conventions, which means they are opening up to real creativity and creativity.

This is the power and inexplicable attraction of Baba Yaga: the initiation of a new generation, the transfer of the taste of life and the creation of real tests, through which they learn and prepare for a great life. She “populates” the previously re-conscious world with new actions and creativity.

Original article: annasharlay.com

Woman as a victim2

She often brings her interests and desires in favor of the desires of the man - the partner tries to be what her chosen one wants to see. Habits and interests, behavioral style and even gastronomic preferences. If you see all this - bravo, you have been transferred to the next level into the status of a victim. What this may indicate:

1. Women's opinions are neglected, they love someone more, a relative, a dog or a cat, but not you.
2. When you win the love of a man, you lose yourself.
3. By giving all of yourself, you lose your own self, the inner world in which you were previously so comfortable.

How to solve a problem? There are possible solutions - which one to choose for yourself.

Socialization is against nature

• We have all met such people. These are “women with a man’s mind and a man’s character”, “men in skirts”. These are quiet, gentle men, henpecked and weaklings. Both of them can be wonderful people, excellent professionals, reliable friends, but they will always receive disapproval from society for not conforming to the images of a real woman and a real man. They could be happy and achieve success in all areas of life, if not for this constant pressure, constant stress from disapproval, rejection, inconsistency.
• Soft, modest, compliant women very often find themselves in situations of domestic violence. Men who have been suppressing emotions for a long time lead themselves to a nervous breakdown or heart attack. Women who do not know how to insist on their own cannot achieve the implementation of their ideas and express themselves. Men, who are most afraid in life of losing and being a despised loser, as a result, do not know how to retreat in time and lose everything.
• We live at the turn of the century, the old traditional world is becoming obsolete. All relationships between people change - family, marriage, business, friendship. Women are required to take more active action, men are required to be more flexible, more restrained, and more patient. Things are getting harder and harder for people who come from families with a traditional upbringing. More and more often, you can encounter the confusion of such people: “It seems like they raised me correctly, my parents lived like this all their lives, but what about me? What about me? Why can't I do it? Why am I unsuccessful?

Will the refusal to impose traditional feminine and masculine qualities lead to an improvement in the existence of the entire society, or, on the contrary, will chaos ensue without a clear division? Future will tell.

But I like the modern approach to education - to develop a child based on his strengths and weaknesses, his talents and desires, and not his gender. This is the only way to raise a free and happy person, a real man or a real woman, not stereotypical, but alive.

Solutions3

1. Don’t sacrifice yourself and your desires, time and energy - you only live one life, and you don’t have a second chance. If they ask for something, think about whether you have the strength to do it, whether you want it.
2. Make a list of what you sacrifice for the sake of your chosen one, as well as a list of what you yourself want - a list of people, goals, desires that are dear to you.
3. Try to be true to your principles, ideals, desires - this will preserve you as a person and make you, if not attractive to your man, then certainly attractive to those around you.

The role of a woman in a relationship is the savior4

Often a woman is not so much in love with a man as with an ideal and unique image and does not see what is hidden under the mask of virtue. Often a woman takes patronage over dreamers and poets, out of touch with this world, beggars and alcoholics - so she takes upon herself the mission of salvation. The salvation of, if not the whole world, then at least one person, and in this case the woman is guided by the principle that a man is worth loving for who he is. How to solve such a problem?

1. You should not fall in love with a man’s potential abilities and capabilities - they may not be realized. And if you didn’t succeed in realizing them, and you don’t want to live with a loser, break up.
2. Concentrate your potential on your goals and desires, but not your husband’s, especially if you doubt that they will be empty.
3. And finally, make a list - what are you giving up for this man, are they worth it.

The social roles of men and women are not obvious

Once the contrast between men and women was increased and emphasized, additional manifestations of biological differences were sought out that supported the need for different social roles. Or, to put it another way, sex differences are used to create gender differences, which then explain sex differences, which in turn require gender differences, and so on. This circular reasoning is socially very effective.

For example, in our own patriarchal society, we tend to like men who are in a socially dominant position. Masculinity allows boys to acquire and assert positions. Girls learn humility and femininity. As a result, the difference in male and female characters appears to be innate and used to protect the existing mechanism of power. Only those who accept this norm, and only they can count on success.

The masculine social role is designed to encourage the masculine in men, and the feminine social role offers its relative feminine advantages to women.

An active man will work hard in business, and a beautiful, pleasant woman will find a rich husband.) In other words, masculinity and femininity are gendered qualities that developed in response to social discrimination. And as soon as they were developed, they were justified and secured. Male and female gender roles complement each other and thereby perpetuate the inequalities on which they are based.

Obviously, this psychological mechanism can only work as long as the behavior of men and women does not violate generally accepted boundaries. Every society thus tries to prevent such deviations by calling socially defined gender roles “natural,” eternal, and unchangeable. Any person who refuses to accept them is persecuted as a criminal (not only against society, but against “nature” itself).

Stereotypes of behavior A historical example of such deviation is the case of Joan of Arc - a young girl who not only led the French army to victory over the English, but also wore men's clothing. In later trials she would have been acquitted, but as a criminal she was accused of violating the laws of nature.

And the fourth program - Slave - Stepdaughter - Cinderella5

Often in the house a woman takes on the role of a stepdaughter, submissive and unable to say no, a Cinderella who does everything and anything for a man. They hide their talents, are sensitive to compliments, but in any case, if such a situation puts pressure on a woman, it is worth stopping it.

1. Make a list of your own achievements - talents and merits, and simply your strong, positive qualities of nature. Based on them, make a presentation about your person.
2. Accept compliments and don't diminish your strengths. How? Just ask men, acquaintances and not so well, what they think about you, your outfit or work.
3. Try to find the man who wants you to be next to him.
4. Do not forgive a man an unworthy, dismissive or negligent, boorish attitude towards himself - no pain, no insults, and especially no violence.
5. Develop for yourself a behavior scenario that is not included in the programs - slaves, Cinderellas and servants.

All this will help not just preserve your self, but develop and grow above yourself. This is the only way a woman’s role in a relationship can be complete and harmonious.

Gender roles in Russia and Western countries

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Gender roles as determined by society have extremely important consequences in the lives of men and women. These are the “basic statuses” that have a primary influence on the interactions and relationships of individuals with other people (see Chapter 2). They assign men and women specific places in the social structure, determining their status. Consequently, gender roles form the basic structure within which men and women identify themselves, formulate their goals and prepare for life. In addition, gender roles are the main source of social inequality. Just as society institutionalizes inequality based on membership in a particular racial or ethnic group, it institutionalizes inequality based on gender.

Family. To a large extent, sexual inequality has historically been maintained by the fact that the role of breadwinner in the family was assigned to the man, and the role of educator of children to the woman. The division between the public and domestic spheres of life was insurmountable. Work in the public sphere was rewarded with money, prestige and power, while domestic work tended to be invisible and undervalued. Motherhood has traditionally occupied a central place in social definitions of women's roles in Russian society. Each woman was expected to raise and raise the children born to her from one husband in her family, which was considered as a personal living space. The dominant position of men implied that women's sexuality “belonged” to men. Women were believed to provide sexual and domestic services to men in exchange for financial support from them. Within this structure, a sexual double standard prevailed, granting men, but not women, the rights to significant sexual freedom. The legislation considered a woman's entry into marriage as her “civil death.” After marriage, women lost their legal status in the eyes of the law and became “one with their husbands and inseparable from them.” The wife had no right to personal property and could not sign contracts. And the husband could demand from his wife that she live where he pleases, and have the right to have sexual relations with her against her will.

Work and professional career. Women's careers in general are completely different from men's. In modern family and professional structures, women's career advancement is hampered by the need to care for children. Women with children face significant disadvantages in terms of their careers. The age of 25-35 is critical for a professional career. Nevertheless, it is at this age that a woman is most at risk of temporarily leaving the workforce if she wants to give birth and raise a child. Women with children do not always have the opportunity to gain the necessary professional skills and career advancement. Even if a new mother returns to work just a few months after the birth of her child, male managers often consider that such a woman is no longer able to work at full capacity and perform time-consuming work tasks and stop promoting her through the ranks.

In Russia, among the first managers of industrial enterprises there are 11% women, 8% of agricultural enterprises.,

construction – 1%. In industry, 4.5% (all women) were in management positions in 1985, and 9% (all men) were men. In the early 1990s. The share of women heads of enterprises and organizations did not exceed 6-9% in industries as a whole. At the same time, in the literature devoted to the analysis of women's employment problems, the same figure appears almost constantly: women specialists working in management positions make up 60%. With perestroika, the process of ousting women from decision-making and leadership intensified. The percentage of women among the first managers of enterprises compared to 1985 decreased from 11 to 5.6%.

It is characteristic that women themselves do not strive to make a career: 25% of women in Russia, 53% of women in Poland (slightly less in other countries) would like to make a career. At the same time, 8% of Russian women said that they identify themselves to a greater extent with the profession rather than with the family (in Hungary - 0.1%, in West Germany - 4%). The most important value was named by 21% of Russian respondents.

According to surveys by sociologists, a third of married and more than half of unmarried women are career-oriented. To the question: “Do you want to make a career?” – “Yes” answered 39.4% of married women and 41.2% of unmarried women. “Maybe” was answered by 27% of married and unmarried women. ( Seregina I.N.

Professional career//Sociological research. 1999. No. 4. P. 78.)

Woman on the labor market. A minority of managers (7%) support the idea of ​​hiring women with equal qualifications, and more than 40% believe that the share of women in the workforce will decline.

According to the Moscow Government's Labor and Employment Committee, two-thirds of all unemployed Muscovites in 1996 were women, mostly between the ages of 30 and 45. More than half of them have higher education, and about 30% have specialized secondary education. More than a third of all unemployed women have minor children. As statistics show, the current unemployed are most often fired on the initiative of the administration or left their job of their own free will.

Only 8% of respondents get the job they want. Another 16% of respondents have the opportunity to retrain and acquire another specialty to increase their competitiveness. According to the Labor and Employment Committee, the core of those proposed for retraining are the professions of accountant, driver, computer user, salesperson-cashier, secretary-assistant. It can be assumed that even when they acquire a new specialty and salary, women feel uncomfortable because they lose their previous social status and environment of communication. The most popular way to find a job is to find a job through friends and acquaintances (43.4%). In second place in terms of frequency of requests is applying for a job through advertisements in the newspaper (27.0%). 22.2% of respondents use the services of the employment service. ( Tyurina I.O.

Moscow labor market: gender aspect//Sociological research. 1998. No. 8. P. 100.)

Crimes against women. According to the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, in 1996, more than 610 thousand crimes were registered in which women were victims. This is almost 1/4 of all registered crimes in the country.

Crimes against women were committed for the following reasons: selfish motives – 131 thousand; hooliganism – 53 thousand; jealousy, quarrels and other everyday reasons - 78 thousand; sexual urges – 4 thousand ( Palenina V.A.

Implementation of the constitutional principle of gender equality//State and Law. 1998. No. 6. P. 28, 31.)

Women entrepreneurs. Women's entrepreneurial activity is a new phenomenon in the socio-economic development of Russia. According to experts, women currently make up 8-12% of the total number of entrepreneurs heading enterprises of various forms of ownership. More than 45% of the total number of enterprises headed by women have a strict social orientation: they create jobs, train, and employ unemployed parents with many children, single mothers, women with young children, etc.

Business women in the USA and Russia are very similar: a) 79% of women entrepreneurs in Russia have higher education, in the USA this number is 71%; b) 2/3 of the owners of their own business both in the USA and in Russia are married and have one or two children; c) the average age of women entrepreneurs in Russia and the United States is approximately the same: 24% of Russian women entrepreneurs are under 35 years old, 37% are between 35 and 40 years old, and only 35% are over 45 years old; in the USA these figures are 10, 36 and 52%, respectively.

About a third of women-owned businesses have been operating for more than 3 years, 74% were founded 5 years ago; in the United States, 64% of firms exist for more than 5 years and only 16% for less than 3. Regardless of their “longevity,” enterprises owned by women in Russia provide more jobs than those in the United States. Of the 95% of Russian enterprises surveyed, 64% employ 10 or more workers, including part-time, full-time and freelance workers. In the US, less than 84% of similar businesses have employees, with only 29% having more than 10 people on staff.

In Russia, women entrepreneurs obtain money for their business using their own funds (savings, help from family members - 36%, income from business - 25%), or do not receive access to financing at all (22%); 60% of US women entrepreneurs use income to expand their business, 32% (versus 18% in Russia) use bank services or credit cards (51% versus 1% in Russia). ( Babeva L.V.

Russian and American women entrepreneurs // Sociological research. 1998. No. 8. P. 134-135.)

Women in Parliament. Reforms in Russia not only failed to provide women with access to the public administration system, but also reduced their representation in government bodies. If in 1980-1985. in the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, women made up 35% of deputies, and in local Soviets - 50% of deputies, then in the State Duma of the 1993 convocation - 11.4%, and of the 1996 convocation - 12.7%. In other areas, women’s professional careers are no less difficult. ( Seregina I.N.

Professional career//Sociological research. 1999. No. 4. P. 78.)

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Chapter 8. FAMILY

Today we often hear that the family will soon die out. Many sociologists say that the institution of marriage in Western countries has weakened greatly over the past 40 years. As arguments, they cite the ease and frequency of divorce, marriage at a later age, the increase in the number of people who have never been married, the increase in the number of unregistered marriages, the availability of contraceptives, considering these factors as forces that undermine the foundations of the family and nullify it the main function is procreation. If this trend continues, sociologists and demographers warn, industrial societies will dry up because they will not be able to reproduce themselves. Many Russians also express concern about the direction in which family life has been developing in recent decades. They believe that the institution of the family is in crisis, and cite many signs interpreted as symptoms of decline and disintegration: the number of divorces has increased catastrophically; the birth rate has decreased; the number of unmarried mothers has increased; the number of single-parent families has increased; mothers with small children significantly replenish the country's labor force.

Without a doubt, the meaning of marriage has changed, and with it the institution of the family has changed, but it is fair to assume that the family will continue to adapt to existing conditions in a completely unpredictable way, and research on the family and its transformation in modern society will continue and deepen.

FAMILY STRUCTURE

Role of the family

Statements about the withering away of the family, or at least its impending decline, seem greatly exaggerated. While the obituary is being written for the family, it continues to exist and, according to many, even flourishes. Some experts argue that “families are back in fashion,” while other sociologists are convinced that the family is a timeless social unit rooted in the social and biological nature of humans. However, society is constantly changing, and the family must also change, adapting to social changes. From the perspective of family reorganization, marriage and family are simply changing to reflect the personal life styles observed in modern society. The family is not just a flexible social institution; it is one of the constant factors of human experience.

Scientists who regret the modern state of the family assume that in other times the family was more stable and harmonious than it is now. However, despite extensive research, historians have been unable to discover the “golden age of the family.” For example, a hundred or two hundred years ago, marriages were based on family and property needs, and not on love. Often they were destroyed due to the death of one of the spouses or due to the fact that the husband left his wife. Loveless marriages, tyranny of husbands, high mortality rates, and child abuse added to this grim picture. In general, anxiety about the state of the family has a long history. Even in the Middle Ages and the Enlightenment, the best minds expressed concern about the decline of family relationships. In general, it can be noted that the “family question,” despite its many formulations, is far from new.

The family can be considered the initial form of group life for people, since it is here that the ability to live in society is laid and formed. Compared to other social groups, the family occupies a very special position in many respects. All other social groups can be considered “inventions” of culture, the sphere of their existence is public life; The sphere of the family is, first and foremost, personal life.

What is family? While we all use the term and no doubt have a clear idea of ​​what we mean by it, it is a concept that is difficult to define. Many of us imagine a family as a social unit consisting of a married couple and their children living in the same house and leading a common household. But this definition is too limited. In many societies, family refers to a group united by kinship ties, rather than a married couple and their children. Sociologists have traditionally viewed the family as a social group whose members are related by kinship, marriage, or adoption and live together, cooperating economically and caring for children.

However, not everyone is satisfied with this definition. Some scientists believe that psychological connections play a major role in families; they believe that a family is a closely knit group of people who care for and respect each other.

Modern sociologist Anthony Giddens gave a broader definition: a family is a social unit consisting of people who support each other socially, economically or psychologically, or identify each other as a supportive unit.

Truly, family defies full academic definition. How we define family influences what types of families are considered normal and what types are considered deviant, and what family rights and responsibilities are recognized legally and socially.

Family types

Not only at the global level, but also within our society, we find many differences in the forms of family organization. Families differ in composition, type of inheritance, place of residence and the principle of distribution of power.

Compound. Social relationships between adult men and women within the family can be organized according to the principle of marital or kinship ties. In a nuclear family, spouses and their children form the core of the relationship, and blood ties fade into the background. In contrast, in an extended family consisting of several generations, the core of family relationships is formed by blood relatives, and marital ties are functionally secondary. The nuclear family is the most preferred type of family in modern industrial societies. During his life, an individual, as a rule, is a member of two nuclear families: he belongs to a nuclear family consisting of his father, mother, brothers and (or) sisters (sociologists call such a family an orientation family), and, upon marriage, like most citizens, is a member of a nuclear family consisting of the individual himself, his spouse and their children (sociologists define such a family as a reproduction family).

Extended families are found in all kinds of forms throughout the world. Sometimes marital ties are practically absent.

For example, this was the case in the Nayyar caste group, who lived in the southeastern part of India before its colonization by Britain. When a girl reached the age of puberty, she underwent a ritual “marriage” ceremony with a man chosen for her by the community assembly. After three ceremonial days, she underwent another ritual - “divorce”, after which she became free and could choose her “coming husbands”, or lovers. Although the woman's lovers regularly gave her gifts on prescribed occasions, none of them supported her. When a woman had a child, one of her men - not necessarily the biological father of the child - paid her a certain amount and thereby confirmed his legitimacy. However, this man had no economic, social, legal or ritual rights or responsibilities towards the child. The blood relatives of his mother were responsible for the child.

For some time, sociologists believed that industrialization undermined the extended family while promoting the development of nuclear families. For example, William J. Goode, based on a survey of the state of families in many countries around the world, concluded that industrialization weakens the extended family due to a number of factors. First, industrialization encourages people to move in search of new jobs and career opportunities, which weakens family ties that require frequent and close contact. Secondly, industrialization contributes to the growth of social mobility, which leads to friction between blood relatives belonging to different social strata. Third, industrial society replaces consanguineous groups with social institutions in solving such common problems as security, education, military protection, and monetary lending. Fourthly, in an industrial society, the personal achievements of the individual come to the fore, which reduces the dependence of individuals on their families.

However, in recent years, many sociologists have come to a different view and believe that industrialization and the extended family are not incompatible. In particular, researchers studying the family lives of textile workers in New Hampshire in the 19th century found that industrialization contributed to the strengthening of kinship ties. Different generations not only often lived in the same house and ran a common household, but also helped each other in many ways. Indeed, economic changes and the increase in the number of blood relatives may have actually contributed to the formation of extended family structures during the initial period of industrialization of Western countries.

Inheritance. Societies record the origins of their members and pass property from one generation to the next in one of three ways. In a patrilineal structure, where ancestry is traced through the patrilineal line, people trace ancestry and pass on inheritance through their father's line. There are also matrilineal structures, where pedigree is traced and inheritance is through the mother's line. An example is the Nayyar tribe mentioned above. The child was considered the heir not of his father, but of his brother

mothers, i.e. property and privileges passed from maternal uncle to nephew. In the bilineal type, both family lines of an individual are of equal importance. Russians, as a rule, adhere to the bilineal system, tracing their ancestry through both the paternal and maternal lines (though the surname is passed down through the father's side).

Place of residence. Societies also differ depending on where a young couple chooses to live after marriage. In the case of patrilocal residence, the newlyweds settle in the house of the husband's family. The reverse scheme prevails under the conditions of the matrilocal model. For example, among the southwestern Hopi Indians, the husband, after the marriage ceremony, moves to the house of his wife's family, where he eats and sleeps. In Russia, young couples most often choose the neolocal model - they separate and live independently of their parents and other relatives.

Power. Although the power exercised by a man or woman in family life is greatly influenced by his personal qualities, the social order nevertheless prescribes a certain dominant model. In a patriarchal system, the role of the head of the family is usually performed by the husband, and in his absence, by the oldest man in the family. Historical examples of such a way of life include the ancient Jews, Greeks and Romans, as well as the Chinese and Japanese societies of the 19th century. The matriarchal family structure prescribes the concentration of power in the hands of women. However, matriarchy in its pure form is rare. However, although matriarchy is not the preferred form of family structure in most societies, it often arises due to certain circumstances - as a result of the death of a husband or his departure from the family. In the third type of family structure - egalitarian - power and authority are distributed equally between husband and wife. This type of family relationship has been gaining weight in all developed countries of the world in recent decades.

Forms of marriage

The fact that members of two different clan groups marry has a decisive influence on the structure of the family. Indeed, the survival and long-term well-being of any kinship group depends on the inclusion in that group of members of other groups as spouses for unmarried or unmarried members of the kin. A group united by kinship ties has an interest in maintaining some degree of control over at least some of its members after they marry. Consequently, the category of marriage requires detailed consideration. Marriage

-
a historically changing form of social relations between a man and a woman, through which society regulates and sanctions their sexual life and establishes their marital and kinship rights and obligations.
Endogamy and exogamy. All societies limit the acceptable range from which individuals should select marriage partners. Parents, as a rule, are concerned about more than just the desire to marry their sons or marry off their daughters. They want their children to choose a “suitable” spouse or a “suitable” spouse, especially if such a marriage carries important consequences for the larger group of relatives. The correct choice of a spouse is regulated by two types of matrimonial norms: endogamy and exogamy. Endogamy

–
rules prescribing marriage within certain groups,
i.e.
people should marry and be married into their own class, race, ethnic group or creed. Exogamy
-
rules requiring marriage outside one's own group,
where people must marry individuals who are not related by blood.

Norms of exogamy are primarily based on the principle of exclusion of consanguinity and usually include a taboo against incest

–
prohibition of sexual relations between close blood relatives,
which are not just prohibited - they cause condemnation and disgust in society. The incest taboo is the only universal norm in a world of diverse moral principles. However, it is common knowledge that marriages between brothers and sisters were not only allowed, but also often practiced in history, for example, in the countries of the Ancient East. Marriages between brother and sister served the purpose of preserving power and property within the family and preventing the fragmentation of property during its division among heirs. Similar marriage practices took place in the Hawaiian Islands, among the Peruvian Incas, and among the inhabitants of Dahomey in West Africa. In addition, different societies have different definitions of the degree of kinship that falls under the concept of incest. For example, in colonial New England, a man's marriage to his late wife's sister was considered incest. However, among the ancient Jews, a man in some cases was obliged to marry the widow of his deceased brother.

The prohibition against incest has been interpreted in different ways by anthropologists and sociologists. For example, Claude Lévi-Strauss suggested that the incest taboo promoted alliances between different families and strengthened their social interdependence. George Peter Murdoch argues that the incest taboo helps free family members from destructive feelings of sexual jealousy and rivalry. Sociologist Kingsley Davies argues that incestuous relationships are prohibited because they can lead to a hopeless confusion of marital status (for example, a male child resulting from an incestuous union between a father and his daughter would be the son of his own sister, the stepson of his grandmother and grandson to his own father). Sociologists who note that children raised together on Israeli kibbutzim rarely marry each other argue that such behavior is genetic. Admittedly, these questions remain unresolved, and social scientists continue to puzzle over the real source of the incest taboo.

Types of marriage. The relationship between husband and wife can be built according to four different principles: monogamy - one husband and one wife; polygyny - one husband and two or more wives; polyandry - two or more husbands and one wife; group marriage - two or more husbands and two or more wives. Monogamy occurs in all societies, although other forms may be not only acceptable, but also preferred. Monogamy was considered the preferred or ideal type of marriage in less than 20% of the 862 societies sampled for a comparative study of cultures. Polygyny is widespread around the world - 83% of the 862 societies included in the sample allow husbands to have two wives.

For example, the Old Testament talks about cases of polygyny among Jews: Gideon had many wives who bore him 70 sons; King David had several wives; King Solomon, according to legend, had 700 wives and 300 concubines; King Solomon's son, Rehoboam, had 18 wives and 60 concubines; in turn, the sons of Rehoboam also had many wives.

The fate of husbands with several wives is not similar to the Hollywood idea of ​​an Arab sheikh, who has a harem waiting for him, ready at any moment to fulfill his master’s every desire. In fact, anthropologist Ralph Linton is convinced that such a husband is worthy not of envy, but of pity:

“In rare societies where polygyny is accepted, a man is actually in a better position than in conditions of monogamy. If the wives of one man do not get along with each other, the family becomes an arena of constant struggle, and the husband is given the thankless role of mediator or lightning rod. If wives live in harmony with each other, then the husband is most likely to become the object of organized female opposition." ( Linton R.

The Study of Man: An introduction. NY, 1936. P. 183-184.)

Although Linton overstates the situation, his point of view is worth considering. As a rule, only the wealthiest men can afford to have more than one wife (for example, in China, India and Islamic countries, polygyny was usually the privilege of a wealthy minority). Polygyny is explained by many factors other than sex; it is closely related to considerations of economic production and economic status. This family structure is encouraged when large families have more advantages and women make a significant contribution to the livelihood.

Polyandry is extremely rare. As a rule, the principle of polyandry does not imply freedom of sexual choice for women; often it simply means that the husband's younger brothers also have the right or opportunity to live with their older brother's wife. If a family cannot afford to marry all its sons, it can only find a wife for the eldest son. Anthropologist W.G.R. Rivers studied polyandrous relationships among the Todas people of India and made the following observations:

“Todas have a clearly organized and defined system of polyandry. When a woman marries, it is understood that she simultaneously becomes the wife of her husband's brothers. If a young man marries a girl, then usually all her husband’s brothers are considered the girl’s husbands; even the husband’s younger brother, born after his marriage, also receives rights to his older brother’s wife... The brothers live together, and my interlocutors found it strange my assumption that with such a family structure some kind of feuds or manifestations of jealousy are possible... In my opinion Todas, when a man does not want to share his wife with others, it is immoral.”

Sociologists are far from agreed on whether group marriage ever existed as a cultural norm. There is some evidence that this form of marriage actually existed among the inhabitants of the Brazilian jungle, among the inhabitants of the Marquesas Islands in the South Pacific, among the Chukchi in Siberia and among the Todas people in India. Sometimes, as in the case of todas, polyandry shifted towards group marriage, in which several brothers shared more than one wife.

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