Key Concepts
Perception is usually understood as both the process itself and the totality of psychophysiological phenomena. In philosophy, perception was interpreted as a type of cognition, different from sensation and thinking. D. Leibniz described perception as a state of unclear consciousness; it gradually comes under the influence of attention (apperception), when the object is clearly and meaningfully realized. Perception in psychology is a form of sensory cognition.
Perception is a holistic reflection of objects or phenomena in conditions of their direct impact on the senses. The mental process is that objects and phenomena at a given moment in time are reflected through the senses. As a result, when a person interacts with the outside world, an image of an object or phenomenon is formed.
The image is based on sensations. But the perceived image is not a sum of sensations, but a holistic and meaningful picture. For example, noise outside the window will be perceived as a sound sensation of a certain frequency, identified from personal experience (the noise of rain, leaves, broken glass, a passing car).
Perception is closely related to human activity, so movement is an important component. There are motor processes:
- With the eyes - inspection of an object.
- Hands - feeling the object.
- Reactions that cause the head to turn towards the sound.
Apperception refers to the dependence of perception on past experience, knowledge base and personality orientation. Directions will depend on the person’s life experience and professional activities. Thus, a football player, a doctor and a businessman will perceive the ball differently depending on the direction of their professional activity.
LECTURE 2. Psychological mechanisms of perception. Psychology of communication
LECTURE 2.
Psychological mechanisms of perception.
(2 hours). Lecture outline:
Communication as perception.
Understanding.
Stereotyping.
Where does communication begin? Of course, “at first sight”, i.e. communication begins with observing the interlocutor, his appearance, voice, and demeanor. Psychologists say in this regard that one person perceives another. Effective communication is impossible without correct perception, assessment and mutual understanding of partners. That is why we begin our study with the main and important side of communication - the perceptual one.
Perception (or perception) is well studied in social psychology, and the term “social perception” (social perception) was first introduced by the American psychologist J. Bruner in 1947. He drew attention to the fact that, along with individual differences, there are general socio-psychological mechanisms perception. Various factors influence how people perceive and evaluate each other. Research has confirmed that children and adults differ in social perception. Children are more focused on the perception of appearance (clothes, hairstyle, etc.); they recognize a person’s emotional state better by facial expressions than by gestures. In addition, the observer’s profession has a strong influence on the perception process. Thus, when assessing the same person, a salesperson will evaluate his appearance, a philologist will evaluate his speech characteristics, and a physician will evaluate his physical health.
However, in general, a person is faced with the task not simply of “perceiving”, but rather of getting to know another person. In the course of cognition, an emotional assessment of a person is carried out and an attempt is made to understand the logic of his actions and, on this basis, to build his own behavior. People entering into communication differ from each other in life experience, social status (Social status is the position (position) of an individual or group in the social system, determined by a number of characteristics: profession, education, economic, family-age, ethnic, etc. .), intellectual development, etc. What signs allow us to judge, for example, the superiority of our interlocutor in terms of social status? Research has shown that the process of forming a first impression of a person is essential. The first impression is greatly influenced by: 1) a person’s appearance (clothing, hairstyle, jewelry, glasses, insignia; in some cases, “clothing” such as a car, office decoration, office supplies, etc. is considered); 2) a person’s behavior (how he stands, walks, sits, talks, where his gaze is directed, etc.). Appearance and demeanor are factors of superiority, since they always contain elements that indicate a person’s belonging to a certain social group or his orientation towards a certain group.
In earlier times, there were certain rules and regulations that dictated what and who could or could not wear. In certain eras, regulations were developed to the smallest detail and had a certain meaning. In our time, when there are no clear regulations, the role of clothing nevertheless remains significant. Knowing the “secrets” of clothing, you can create a certain image in your communication partner, increase (if necessary, decrease) your importance and prestige. For example, when you are going to an exam and putting on a formal suit and shirt and tie, you are most likely trying to slightly increase your social status. If the teacher wears jeans and a sweater for the same exam, then he is trying to weaken the factor of his superiority in order to improve interaction with the student, i.e. with you. Properly selected clothing will help create a favorable impression, inspire trust on the part of your partner and create the image of an honest, reliable interlocutor.
What in clothing indicates superiority? Firstly, the price. The price of clothing is determined by quality, as well as by the frequency of occurrence of a given model (scarcity) and its fashionability. Secondly, the silhouette of the clothes. “High status” for both women and men is considered to be a silhouette resembling an elongated rectangle with emphasized corners, “low status” is a silhouette resembling a ball in shape.
For example, a sweater, especially a voluminous and fluffy one, jeans or soft trousers are incompatible with high status. However, at a friendly party, a soft sweater (pullover) is perceived better than a formal suit. Thirdly, the color of the clothes. Please note that specific colors may have different meanings in different countries. In European clothing, achromatic colors, i.e., black, gray and white, are considered a sign of high status (regardless of fashion trends); the brighter and more saturated the color, the lower the person's perceived status. All these signs are important in interaction; they should not be considered separately.
In addition, various details, such as decorations, influence the first impression. Massive gold signet rings for men, as well as large diamond rings for women, although they indicate their financial capabilities, can sometimes cause an undesirable effect (“disgusting jewelry may appear to a communication partner as cunning, insincere, and prone to dominance , claiming increased attention to their person.
In the manner of behavior, as in clothing, there are always elements that allow one to judge the status of the interlocutor (gait, manner of sitting and standing). For example, the results of experiments showed that people around them prefer people who sit freely on a chair, slightly tilting their body forward. And, conversely, people who sit straight on a chair, leaning slightly back, cause a negative attitude; the same applies to the manner of sitting on a chair with crossed arms or legs.
When perceiving a person, the factor of attractiveness is of great importance.
The difficulty in determining this factor is due to the fact that we are accustomed to considering attractiveness as an individual impression. Any attempt to generalize the signs of attractiveness “encounters” internal resistance. Different peoples in different historical periods had and have their own canons of beauty, so the factor of attractiveness is determined not by the shape of the eyes and hair color, but by the social significance of this or that characteristic of a person. After all, there are types of appearance that are approved and disapproved by society or a specific social group, which means that attractiveness is an approximation to the type of appearance that is maximally approved by the group to which we belong.
Another important factor of perception
is
the attitude towards us from others.
At the same time, people who treat us well are valued much higher than those who treat us poorly. In the experiment, psychologists, having identified the subjects' opinions on a number of issues, introduced them to the opinions of other people on the same issues and asked them to evaluate these people. It turned out that the closer someone else’s opinion is to one’s own, the higher the assessment of the person who expressed this opinion. In this experiment, agreement was assessed using direct questions. However, there are a large number of indirect signs of agreement: nods of approval, smiles and words in the right places, demeanor. In communication, it is very important that consent is clearly expressed. If there is agreement, then the perception of the factor of positive attitude towards us is included.
Studying the processes of perception, psychologists have identified typical distortions
ideas about another person.
Halo effect.
Any information received about a person is superimposed on a pre-created image. This pre-existing image acts as a halo that interferes with effective communication. For example, when communicating with a person who is superior to us in some important parameter (height, intelligence, financial situation), he is assessed more positively than if he were equal to us. At the same time, a person is rated higher not only on a parameter that is significant to us, but also on others. In this case, they say that a general personal reassessment occurs. Therefore, if the first impression of the interlocutor is generally favorable, then in the future his actions, behavior and traits are overestimated. At the same time, only positive aspects are noticed and overestimated, while negative ones are not noticed or underestimated. And vice versa, if the general impression of a person is negative, then even his noble actions are not noticed or are interpreted as self-interest.
The halo effect can be beneficial if you create a good reputation among people who are closely related to each other: classmates, work colleagues, friends. Very soon you will find that you are surrounded by wonderful, friendly people who get along wonderfully with each other.
Projection effect
arises when we attribute our advantages to a pleasant person, and our shortcomings to an unpleasant person.
Anticipatory effect
or
the effect of primacy and novelty
appears when we are faced with conflicting information about a person. If we are dealing with a stranger, then importance is attached to the information (information) that is presented at the beginning. When communicating with a well-known person, the latest information about him is taken into account.
Of course, no one can completely avoid mistakes, but everyone can understand the peculiarities of perception and learn to correct their mistakes.
Understanding in the process of communication
“Happiness is when you are understood,” this is what the hero of the movie “We’ll Live Until Monday” wrote in his essay. You already know that in the course of communication a person strives not just to perceive the interlocutor, but to get to know him, to understand the logic of his actions and behavior. People's cognition and understanding of others and themselves occurs in accordance with psychological mechanisms of perception. Let's consider these mechanisms.
Identification (from Latin identificare -
identify) is likening oneself to another. To understand a communication partner, you need to put yourself in his place, since you cannot truly understand a person until you have been in his “skin.” If others misunderstand us, we say: “If only you were in my place,” in other words, we invite others to “turn on” their identification mechanism. This mechanism allows you to understand the values, habits, behavior and norms of another person.
Empathy (from the Greek empatheia -
empathy) is not a rational understanding of another person’s problems, but an emotional response, empathy, empathy. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside a person, what he is experiencing, and how he evaluates events. It has been established that the ability to show empathy increases with the acquisition of life experience. Elderly people, who have seen and experienced a lot, understand a person who finds themselves in certain circumstances better than young people.
The highest form of empathy is effective, characterizing the moral essence of a person. For example, you can simply sympathize with a fellow student who “failed” an exam, or you can help prepare for a retake.
Attraction (from Latin attrahere -
attract, attract) is a form of knowing another person, based on the emergence of positive feelings towards him: from sympathy to love. The reason for the emergence of a positive emotional attitude between communication partners is often their internal and external similarity. For example, young people (boys, girls) understand each other much better than the adults who surround them (parents, teachers, etc.).
To correctly understand a communication partner, it is important to know his attitude towards us, how he perceives and understands us. In this case, the mechanism “works”, which in psychology is called reflection. Reflection (from Latin reflexi
- turning back) is a person’s ability to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner.
This is no longer just knowledge of the other, but also knowledge of how the other understands us: our mental abilities, individual personality traits and emotional reactions. At the same time, our attention is transferred from the communication partner to ourselves and a kind of doubling of mirror images of each other occurs. As a result, taking into account reflection and mutual reflection of partners, communication is no longer attended by two, but, as it were, six people: “I”, as I really am;
“I” as I see myself; “I” as my communication partner sees me. And these same three positions can be found in the interlocutor.
Understanding another person is very important for successful communication with him. We are often interested in what makes the interlocutor act this way and not otherwise, i.e. what are the reasons for his actions. After all, knowing them, you can predict the further behavior of your communication partner. If a person always had complete information about the people around him with whom he enters into communication, then he could accurately build tactics for interacting with them. But in everyday life, we, as a rule, find ourselves in conditions of information deficiency, not knowing the true reasons for another person’s behavior. This ignorance forces us to attribute to others a wide variety of reasons for their behavior and actions. They are based on the similarity of the interlocutor’s behavior with some known image or an analysis of our own reasons that are found in a similar situation. Attributing reasons for behavior to another person is called causal attribution (from the Latin causa atribuo -
reason and give, endow).
Research shows that every person has habitual explanations for other people's behavior. Some people always find the culprit of what happened and attribute the cause of what happened to a specific person, but not to themselves. For example, if you received a “failure” on an exam, it’s the teacher’s fault because he’s being picky. In this case we talk about personal attribution.
Others tend to see everything in the circumstances rather than look for the culprit, i.e.
they are accustomed to circumstantial attribution.
For example, I was late for class because the transport is bad.
Still others see everything through stimulus attribution,
i.e. the reason lies in the subject. For example: a bag of groceries fell because it didn’t stand well. Or they see the reason in the “victim” himself. For example, if you were expelled from an educational institution, it’s your own fault.
In addition, we are faced with internal and external attribution. For example, we can attribute success in a classmate’s exam to his high mental abilities, diligence, perseverance, perseverance, etc. ( internal attribution),
or we can attribute it to the fact that the ticket was easy, or that during the exam we managed to use a cheat sheet
(external attribution).
When studying causal attribution, psychologists have discovered interesting patterns. Thus, people usually attribute the reason for success to themselves, and failure - to circumstances. The assessment of the event will be different in cases where the person was a participant or an observer. Research has confirmed that attribution errors lead to biases in explaining the behavior of group members. Members of their group always make excuses: “He refused because circumstances forced him.” When explaining the same actions to members of other groups, people say: “He refused because he only thinks about himself.” Positive behavior of members of an “out-group” (not one’s own) group is most often not noticed or is considered as a rare, unique case.
It is noteworthy that knowledge of the patterns and errors of causal attribution helps make it effective for establishing interaction.
Stereotyping (from the Greek stereos typos -
solid and imprint). A stereotype is a stable image of a phenomenon or person that develops in conditions of a lack of information, in other words, a cliche to which we turn. Stereotyping can result from a generalization of personal experience, to which is added information obtained from books and films. So, in cinema and theater there is the concept of “character hero” (“hero-lover”, “villain”, etc.). Many stereotypes are transmitted and developed in accordance with the images embedded in our minds by our parents.
Ethnic stereotypes are the most tenacious, but not always true. For example, stereotypical ideas about the politeness and stiffness of the British, the pedantry of the Germans, the eccentricity of the Italians, and the “mysteriousness of the Slavic soul.” Ethnic stereotypes are most clearly manifested in folklore, in particular in jokes.
Professional stereotypes are popular and persistent. Without working in specific areas, we do not hesitate to talk about the accuracy of a mathematician, the discipline of a military man, and the fact that all businessmen are speculators, and officials are bureaucrats. In other words, every profession has its own stamp.
Stereotypical perception is strengthened by good or bad mood and well-being. So, when you feel unwell, people and events are perceived in a more negative light.
Communication becomes possible if people interacting can assess the level of mutual understanding and understand what the communication partner is like. This, in turn, improves the culture of business relations.
Review questions:
1. What influences the first impression of a person?
2. What factors occur when people perceive each other?
3. What typical distortions in perception do you know?
4. What psychological mechanisms of perception do you know?
5. Reveal the essence of each mechanism.
Bibliography:
1. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology of business communication and management (textbook for colleges) - Rostov-on-Don.: Phoenix Publishing House, 2009. - 409 p.
2. Volkova A.I. Psychology of communication (textbook for colleges) - Rostov-on-Don.: Phoenix Publishing House, 2006. - 448 p.
3. Shelamova G.M. Business culture and psychology of communication (textbook for secondary vocational education) - M.: Izdatelsky, 2008. - 178 p.
4. Sukhov A.N. Social psychology (textbook for colleges) - M.: Izdatelsky, 2006. - 240 p.
Perceptual actions
When a person makes movements to recognize an object or phenomenon, this is called a perceptual action. In other words, perceptivity is a certain process of detecting an object perceived in relation to existing images in memory.
There are four levels of perceptual action:
- Object detection.
- Discrimination.
- Identification and identification.
Any sensory process begins with detection and determination, being a reaction to a stimulus. The next stage is discrimination, which forms a perceptual image of the standard; in parallel, identification processes begin. Using identification, a perceived object is compared with an image stored in memory. An object is considered identified when it is assigned to a certain class of objects.
Perceptual actions form a whole system, some of them require special development and training.
Main features of perception
Perception
- this is the process of reflection in human consciousness of objects and phenomena of the real world in their integrity, in the totality of their various properties and parts and with their direct impact on the senses.
The most important features of perception are: objectivity, integrity, constancy, apperception, meaningfulness, selectivity, illusion, generality.
. Objectivity
perception is manifested in the fact that any object or phenomenon is reflected not as a mechanical sum of qualities and properties, but as an object that has its own meaning, nature, purpose. When perceiving objects, a person, first of all, orients himself in them by their functions. The objectivity of perception develops in the process of human life.
. Integrity
perception lies in the fact that images of reflected objects and phenomena appear in consciousness in the unity of many qualities and properties. Even if an object is not fully presented for perception, its perceptual image is “built up” to a complete form based on the perceived elements. For example, in the word perception.
. Constancy
- this is the relative constancy of the size, shape, color of objects and phenomena perceived when changing distance, angle, illumination
. Selectivity
perception consists in highlighting some objects as basic in comparison with others. What is in the center of a person’s attention during perception is called the object of perception, and the rest is called the background. In other words, in a person’s mana at a given moment there is always something that is primary and something that is secondary.
Illusions
. Illusions are called inadequate perceptions that incorrectly, distortedly, erroneously display objects acting on the analyzers. Illusions are determined by various reasons. One of them is the activation of old temporary connections in new, significantly different from previous situations.
apperception
- this is the dependence of the content and direction of perception on a person’s experience, his interests, attitude to life, attitudes, and wealth of knowledge. So, the perception of different people is different. Also, quite often a person accepts not what is for us, but what is desirable for her.
. Meaningfulness
perception consists in the fact that a person immediately names the reflected objects and phenomena using the second signaling system. Consequently, already in the very act of perception there is a correlation between the object and its meaning. For example, an indication that the picture shows a dog immediately forms a certain image of perception
Thanks to understanding the essence and purpose of objects, their targeted use and practical activities with them become possible
. Generality
perception is a reflection
Mental development of a preschool child
Social situation.
The child has a great desire to comprehend the semantic basis of the actions of adults. The child is excluded from active participation in adult activities and relationships.
Leading activity
Role-playing game. At 2-3 years old, children have pronounced “single games”; the child is focused on his own actions. Gradually, the children begin to “play side by side,” uniting purely externally, since everyone should have their own toy.
Mental development.
The development of differentiated sensitivity is noted.
Sensory standards
are mastered and perceptual actions are formed. At 3 years old, a child manipulates an object without attempting to examine it; individual objects are named. At 4 years old, a child examines an object, identifies individual parts and characteristics of the object. At 5-6 years old, a child systematically and consistently examines an object, describes it, and makes the first connections. At the age of 7, the child already systematically, systematically examines the object, explains the content of the picture
Perception develops
space, time and movement, the child perceives works of art.
Social perception develops as the ability to perceive and evaluate relationships with other people.
The stability of attention depends on the nature of the perceived objects. This age period is characterized by a different ratio of involuntary and voluntary attention in different types of activities. Resilience and focus are being built.
Representations develop as the basis of figurative memory. There is a transition from involuntary memory to voluntary memory. The productivity of memorization is influenced by the attitude and nature of the activity. Children develop eidetic memory. The past and future appear in the structure of the child’s self-awareness.
For thinking
Characterized by the transition from visual-effective to visual-figurative thinking (4-5 years), the formation of the simplest forms of reasoning (6-7 years), at the age of six causal thinking appears. The techniques of mediation, schematization, and visual modeling are mastered (6-7 years). At the age of 4, thinking is formed in the process of objective actions. At the age of 5, thinking precedes objective action. At 6-7 years old, children transfer a certain method of action to other situations, and elements of verbal and logical thinking appear.
Development of imagination
depends on the child’s experience, imagination influences children’s creativity. Imagination is accompanied by a bright emotional coloring. Playful and visual activities influence the development of imagination.
Speech is mastered as the main mechanism of socialization of the child. Phonemic hearing, active and passive vocabulary develops, and the vocabulary and grammatical structure of the language are mastered. At 5 years of age, awareness of the sound composition of a word occurs; at 6 years of age, children master the mechanism of syllabic reading.
Classification of properties
Perception is the knowledge of a complex image of an object. A person forms his own model of the objective external world. At the first contact with an object, the human brain receives knowledge about it and forms an image of sensation, then on this basis an image of perception is created.
The leading properties of perception (perception) include:
- Integrity.
- Meaningfulness.
- Generality.
- Constancy.
- Objectivity.
- Selectivity.
Integrity refers to the knowledge of information or an object as a whole, despite the absence of essential details. An object is reflected in the totality of all its properties. Let's say a house without a roof, windows, pipes will still be recognized as a house, only unfinished or destroyed.
Meaningfulness is an understanding of what exactly is perceived and its relationship with knowledge and past experience. Even in unfamiliar objects, similarities with familiar objects are detected. A person who is far from technology will create a connection between the structure he sees with light bulbs and wires, assuming that it is a scientific device.
Generalization is a concept when individual objects are classified as homogeneous according to certain characteristics.
Constancy of perception is the constancy of the perceived shape, size and color of an object, regardless of significant changes in conditions. For example, a bird in flight, in a cage, or in a tree is perceived the same way - as a bird. The same applies to color perception. Red will always remain so in any light. Thanks to constancy, a person recognizes objects under any conditions.
Objectivity is a meaningful, integral image when not only the color, shape or size is perceived, but the functions, properties, and purpose of the object. For example, a spoon has not only color and shape, but also a purpose - a cutlery. The meaning put into the image is important.
Selectivity - an object is distinguished from others based on personal experience. Based on the described characteristics, perception has properties that determine its productivity:
- Volume is the number of objects perceived simultaneously.
- Speed is the time spent on perceptual actions (detection, recognition, discrimination).
- Accuracy is the correspondence of the image to the characteristics and task assigned to the person.
- Completeness—level of compliance.
- Reliability is the duration of perception with the required accuracy, adequate acceptance of an object at a given time and condition.
By analyzing the indicators, one can judge a person’s perceptual abilities.
Abstract on the academic discipline “Psychology”
on the topic: “Sensation, perception, representation”
Plan
1. Introduction.
2. The concept of sensation, types, physiological basis of sensations.
3. The concept of perception, types, physiological basis of perception.
4. The concept of representation, types, physiological basis of representation.
5. Conclusion.
6. List of references.
1. Introduction.
The reconstruction of reality in the human mind begins with sensations that manifest themselves when the corresponding stimuli act on the receptors of the analyzers.
A person realizes himself in activities that are possible as a result of his knowledge of the environment. The leading role in a person’s interaction with the world around him is the properties of the individual, his attitudes, and motives. Also, all mental phenomena are a reflection of reality, a component of the regulation of activity. The regulation of activity begins at the level of perception and sensation - with mental cognitive processes.
Sensations, ideas, perceptions belong to sensory forms of cognition. Sensory reflection in humans is invariably associated with thinking and logical cognition. The individual in human sensory cognition is reflected in the expression of the general. In sensory cognition, a particularly important role is played by the word and language, which initially perform the function of generalization. Also, logical cognition is carried out on indicators of sensory experience, on perception, sensations, ideas, memory.
In the general process of cognition, there is a continuous interaction of all cognitive processes. Sensations are the basis for the most complex cognitive processes - representation, perception, imagination, thinking, memory.
Therefore, only through sensations can we become aware of any form of movement. Sensation is the simplest mental process, which is no longer divided. Sensations convey the strength of stimuli affecting a person and the objective qualities of an object.
2. The concept of sensation, types, physiological basis of sensations.
Sensation is the construction of images of separate properties of environmental objects in the process of natural interaction with them.
The sensory organization of personality is the norm for the development of separate systems of sensitivity and the potential for their unification. Sensory systems are human sensory organs that receive his sensations, in which sensations are replaced by perception. An important feature of the sensory organization of the personality is its formation throughout the entire life course. Sensitivity is given to a person from birth, but its development depends on the desire, circumstances and efforts of the individual himself.
Sensation is a general biological feature of living matter - sensitivity. Sensation is also a conductor of psychic communication with the inner and outer world. Information about all manifestations of the external world is supplied to the brain through sensations. In a similar way, through sensations, a loop is closed that receives feedback about the ongoing state of the body, both physical and, partly, mental. With the help of sensations, a person learns about movement, taste, color, smell, sound, and the state of his internal organs. From these sensations a complete perception of objects and the world is formed. The primary cognitive process takes place in the sensory systems of the individual, and on its basis the most complex cognitive processes are created: ideas, thinking, perceptions, memory. The primary cognitive process is simple, and at the same time, it is actually the basis of mental activity; only through the “inputs” of sensory systems is the essence of the surrounding world directed into human consciousness.
After the brain has received information, the result of its processing is the development of a response strategy, which is aimed, for example, at increasing physical tone, increasing concentration on a given activity, and setting the mood for an early entry into mental activity. In general, a counter action or a developed strategy at each moment in time is the best choice from the various options that are available to the individual at the moment when he makes a decision. But it is also clear that the number of available options and the quality of choice vary for different individuals and depend, for example, on: - mental properties of the individual; - partly physical condition; — strategies for relationships with the environment; — level of formation and organization of higher nervous processes; — experience, the existence of the required information in memory, the likelihood of its retrieval.
The physiological mechanism of sensations is the activity of nervous apparatus - analyzers. Analyzers are divided into three parts: receptor - the part of the analyzer that perceives and converts; the central part of the analyzer (conducted or sensitive nerves); cortical parts of the analyzer, processing nerve impulses. Each receptor corresponds to its own area of cortical cells. The specialization of any sense organs is built not only on the individuality of the construction of analyzer-receptors, but also on the specialization of neurons included in the group of central nervous apparatuses to which signals received by the peripheral sense organs are received. The analyzer is an active receiver of energy; it instinctively changes under the influence of stimuli.
The sensation can be described using several characteristic features. The main features of sensations are quality, duration, intensity, spatial localization.
Quality is a peculiar feature of this sensation, which distinguishes it from other forms of sensations and is modified within a certain type.
The qualities of the visual modality are saturation, hue, brightness.
The qualities of auditory sensations include pitch, timbre, and volume.
The qualities of tactile sensations include roughness, hardness, etc.
Particularly widespread is the classification of sensations by type (modality) of stimulus. Modality is a qualitative characteristic in which the originality of sensation as the simplest mental signal is manifested, which distinguishes it from a nervous signal.
Based on the constellation of receptors, sensations are divided into three groups. The first group is sensations associated with receptors that are located on the surface of the body: taste, visual, olfactory, auditory, skin - exteroceptive sensations. The second group is interoceptive sensations, they are associated with receptors that are located in the internal organs. The third group is static and kinesthetic sensations, their receptors are located in ligaments, tendons, and muscles - proprioceptive sensations.
Sensations are distinguished according to the modality of the analyzer. Distant - visual, auditory, and contact - these are taste and tactile sensations.
Each receptor responds to a specific type of stimulus. The following types of sensations are distinguished: - visual, which arise under the influence of light rays on the retina of the eye; - auditory, which arise as a result of the creation of sound waves of music, noise, speech; - vibrational - this is the ability to capture vibrations of an elastic medium - air, water, earth, objects, this is one of the types of auditory sensitivity, in humans it is poorly developed, but is used by bats, dolphins - ultrasound, echolocation; - olfactory - sensations that convey the smells of surrounding objects; - taste; - skin - this is a sensation of touch, pain, temperature.
Palms, fingertips and lips are very sensitive to touch; a person uses them to feel. Painful sensations that have a strong emotional connotation are clearly visible and audible to another person. Sensitivity to temperature is different; sensations are different in each part of the body: the back is more sensitive to cold than the chest. Depending on the state of the human body and psyche, pseudo-false sensations arise, i.e. hallucinations - there is no stimulus, but the sensation is present - a mirage, visions, delirium, voices, etc.
Proprioceptive sensitivity. Kinesthetic sensations are the sensation of movement and position of individual parts of the body. Receptors for kinesthetic sensations are located in tendons and muscles. Irritation in these receptors occurs due to the influence of muscle contraction and stretching.
Most of the motor receptors are located in the fingers, lips and tongue, because these organs are necessary for the implementation of precise and subtle working and speech movements. The work of the kinesthetic analyzer contributes to the coordination and control of one’s movements.
Speech sensations are formed from infancy to school age. When learning a foreign language, you need to develop speech sensations that are unusual in your native language.
Vestibular sense. Gravitational, or static, sensitivity conveys the position of the human body in space. Its receptors are located in the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear: the vestibular saccules and semicircular sacs, convert signals about gravity and relative movement, and send them to the temporal cortex and the cerebellum. Frequent and sharp changes in body position relative to the plane of the earth - sea motion, swinging - dizziness occurs - seasickness.
3. The concept of perception, types, physiological basis of perception.
Perception is the process of forming, through active actions, a subjective image of a holistic object that directly affects analyzers.
As studies by psychophysiologists show, perception is a complex process that requires extensive analytical and synthetic work. Therefore, it would be more accurate to describe perception as the perceiving activity of a person. The result of this activity is a holistic understanding of the subject that a person encounters in everyday life.
Significant in perception is the desire to perceive an object, awareness of the obligation or need to perceive it, volitional efforts that are aimed at improving perception, the persistence that a person shows in these cases. Consequently, orientation, in this case desire, and attention are involved in the perception of an object in the real world.
The physiological basis of perception is made up of processes that take place in nerve fibers, the central nervous system, and sensory organs. Under the influence of stimuli at the endings of the nerves that are present in the sensory organs, nervous excitation occurs, along the conductive paths it is directed to the nerve centers and, as a result, to the cerebral cortex. In the cerebral cortex, excitation enters the projection, or sensory, zones of the cortex, which are the central projection of the nerve endings that are present in the sense organs. Next, certain sensory information is formed, which depends on the connection of the projection zone with any organ.
The mechanism for the occurrence of sensations is the mechanism discussed above. The formation of sensations actually occurs at the level of the considered scheme. Thus, sensations can be considered as a structural element of the process of perception. Physiological mechanisms of perception enter into the process of creating a holistic image at the stages when excitation from the projection zones is transferred to the integrative zones of the cerebral cortex, where the creation of images of real world phenomena is completed. Therefore, the integrative zones of the cerebral cortex, which complete the process of perception, are often called perceptual zones. The function of perceptual zones has significant differences from the functions of projection zones.
The close connection of perception with emotional experiences, various thought processes, and motor activity further complicates its physiological basis. In view of this, nervous excitations that are caused by external stimuli begin in the sense organs, are redirected to the nerve centers and cover various areas of the cortex, and interact with other nervous excitations. All these lines of excitation, which interact with each other, widely cover different zones of the cortex, and represent the physiological basis of perception.
Temporary nerve connections that ensure the process of perception are presented in two types: inter-analyzer and formed within the same analyzer. The first type occurs when a complex stimulus of a single modality influences the body. Nervous connections are based in response to stimuli and their relationship - temporal, spatial. As a result, a process of unification—complex synthesis—occurs in the cerebral cortex.
The second type of nerve connections that are formed under the influence of a complex stimulus are connections within various analyzers. Sechenov I.M. explained their occurrence by the presence of associations - visual, motor, tactile, etc. Associations are necessarily accompanied by auditory images of words, with the help of which perception acquires a holistic character. Consequently, the foundation of the complex process of building a perception image is the system of intra-analyzer and inter-analyzer connections, which contribute to improving the conditions for seeing stimuli and taking into account the interaction of the properties of an object as a complex whole.
The main properties of perception are integrity, apperception, objectivity, structure, activity, constancy, meaningfulness.
Objectivity of perception is the ability to display phenomena and objects of the real world in the form of separate objects. In addition, objectivity is not an innate property of perception; the formation and improvement of this property occurs in the process of ontogenesis - from the first year of a child’s life.
Integrity. Sensation reflects the individual properties of an object, while perception, on the contrary, contributes to the creation of a holistic image of the object. It is based on the generalization of information received in the form of different sensations about the partial properties and qualities of an object. The components of sensation are so strong among themselves that a single complex image of an object is created even with the direct action of only individual properties or individual parts of the object. The emergence of this object occurs conditionally through connections between various sensations.
The integrity of perception is also associated with its structure. This feature lies in the fact that perception is largely not a projection of a person’s instantaneous sensations and is not their simple sum. A person perceives a generalized structure, practically abstracted from these sensations, the formation of which takes some time.
The next property of perception is constancy. Constancy is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions of their perception change. With the help of the property of constancy, which manifests itself in the praxis of the perceptual system of compensating changes in the conditions of perception, a person perceives the objects around him as relatively constant. To a large extent, constancy is noticeable in the visual perception of shape, size of objects, and color. Thus, the constancy of color perception is contained in the relative constancy of visible color when lighting changes.
Also, perception is determined by the subject himself. What is perceived is not the ear and the eye, but a specific living person. Therefore, perception always reflects the characteristics of a person’s personality. The conditioning of perception from the general content of a person’s mental life is called apperception.
The manifestation of distorted or erroneous (false) perception is an illusion of perception. Illusions are observed in various types of perception - visual, auditory, etc. The characteristics of illusions are recognized by subjective reasons - direction, attitude, emotional attitude, as well as by physical phenomena and factors - position in space, illumination, etc.
Another property of perception is its meaningfulness. Perception is created through the direct action of a stimulus on the senses, and perceptual images always carry a certain semantic meaning. Human perception is closely related to thinking. The connection between perception and thinking is manifested in the conscious perception of an object, i.e. mentally name it - assign it to a certain class, group, associate it with a certain word. Even when examining an unfamiliar object, a person tries to determine its similarity with other objects.
At the basis of one of the classifications of perception are differences in the analyzers that take part in perception. Depending on which analyzer plays the most important role in perception, auditory, visual, kinesthetic, tactile, olfactory, and taste perception are distinguished.
As a rule, perception is the result of the interaction of a number of analyzers. Kinesthetic sensations are involved to varying degrees in all kinds of perception, for example, tactile - the participation of tactile and kinesthetic analyzers is observed. Also in visual and auditory perception, the participation of the kinesthetic analyzer is observed. Various types of perception are quite rarely found in their pure form. As a rule, they are combined, and as a result complex types of perception are created.
Another classification of types of perception is based on the forms of presence of matter: movement, space and time. In connection with this classification, the perception of movement, the perception of space and the perception of time are distinguished.
4. The concept of representation, types, physiological basis of representation.
A representation is a visual image of an object that is reproduced in the imagination from memory. Images of ideas are not as vivid and detailed as compared to images of perception, but they reflect the representativeness of a given object.
Representations are specific images of phenomena of the external world, objects, their properties, previously perceived by a person and then arising in his memory. The basis of ideas is a person’s previous experience - every idea is, in its different parts, perception.
Images of perception invariably have a visual nature: they reflect the external properties of phenomena and objects when they impact the human senses. Like perceptions, ideas are visual in nature, reflecting the external properties of objects that a person has known in previous experience.
But there are some differences between perception and representation.
Representations are images of phenomena and objects that are stored in a person’s memory; in their absence, phenomena and objects do not directly affect the senses;
Ideas are not as bright and clear as perceptions, for example, the idea of a tree you have ever seen is paler than its perception - it is less distinct in its size, shape, details, colors.
Representations are characterized by variability - the shape, color, and size of the represented object change freely. A person can imagine a red pencil with a round handle that he has just seen as a blue hexagonal one.
Representations, in comparison with perceptions, are more generalized images of objects, in which similar features of objects of this class play a primary role. For example, when a person needs to imagine a poplar, and not a cedar, his idea reflects the features of the bark, trunk, and leaf shape corresponding to the poplar. This is a generalized and at the same time visual image of a poplar, an image of not just any tree, but a poplar. Sometimes, if necessary, a single object is displayed in the representation, but the larger number of representations that a person has in his mind, as a rule, are generalized visual images of reality.
The physiological basis of ideas are processes that occur only in the cortical parts of the analyzers; receptors do not function during imagination.
At the basis of representation lies the perception of objects that existed in the past. There are several types:
- representations of memory - arising on the basis of the perception in the past of some phenomenon or object;
- representations of the imagination.
Representations characterize:
- visibility - sensual visual images of reality, this reveals the content of their similarity with images of perception;
- fragmentation - representations have gaps, some features and parts are presented very vaguely, others - clearly, and in the third case their absence is observed;
- impermanence and instability - any evoked image, object or someone’s image will be erased from consciousness, even if a person tries to save it.
Representations are not only visual images of reality, but more often generalized images, and this is their similarity in concepts.
Representation, like any other cognitive processes, performs certain functions in the regulation of human mental behavior. Researchers identify three important functions: regulatory, tuning and signaling.
The essence of the signal function of representations is the reflection of the image of an object, which until this moment influenced the human senses, as well as various information about this object, which is transformed under the influence of specific influences into a system of signals that are responsible for behavior.
The regulatory function of ideas is closely related to their signaling function and is located in the selection of the necessary information about a phenomenon or object that previously influenced the human senses. In this case, the choice is not made in the abstract; the real conditions of the intended activity are taken into account. With the help of the regulatory function, precisely those aspects, for example, of motor ideas are updated, on the basis of which the established task is resolved with great success.
Adjustment function - manifests itself in the orientation of human activity determined by the nature of the influence of the environment. The tuning function of representations is responsible for providing a certain training effect to motor representations, which contributes to the formation of the algorithm of our activity.
Typically, auditory, visual, kinesthetic, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, organic and temperature types of representations are distinguished.
Also, all ideas are different in the range of manifestations of volitional efforts.
Involuntary ideas are created spontaneously, without activating a person’s memory.
Arbitrary ideas are created in a person with volitional effort, in orientation towards a set goal.
Representations are the most important form of subjective reflection of the objective world. They represent the most important value in human activity and life. If there are no ideas, then the contents of his consciousness would be limited only by existing perceptions; there would be a reflection of the images of objects directly acting on him at each current moment.
With the help of the generalization links they contain, ideas serve as an intermediate step from sensations to thinking, from concrete images to abstract concepts.
Also, with the help of their inherent wide variability, which allows for the construction of new images, ideas play a necessary and significant role in human creative activity.
5. Conclusion.
The most important role of sensations is to quickly and timely convey to the central nervous system, as the main organ of activity control, information about the state of the internal and external environment, the presence of biologically important factors in it.
Human life is multifaceted and complex. Its manifestation is visible through a significant chain of important processes. Conventionally, they are divided into business and social activity, medicine, culture, sports, interpersonal relationships, communication, research and scientific activities, recreation and entertainment.
Thus:
- sensation is a reflection of the individual properties of objects that affect the senses;
- perception is a very complex, and at the same time unified process, which is aimed at knowing what currently has an impact on a person;
- representation is a mental process of reflecting objects, phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of a person’s previous experience.
The full course of the above processes is problematic and sometimes even impossible to imagine without the participation of all human senses. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the role of feelings in a person’s life, since sometimes this information helps in organizing the successful existence of an individual in society and achieving success in a business environment.
6. List of references.
1. L.S. Vygotsky, Psychology. – M.: EKSMO-Press, 2000. – 1008 p.
2. S.L. Rubinstein, Fundamentals of general psychology [Text] / S.L. Rubinstein. - St. Petersburg; Peter, 2007. – 713 p. – (Series “Masters of Psychology”).
3. A.N. Leontiev, Lectures on general psychology. – M.: Meaning; Ed. , 2007. – 511 p.
4. N.Yu. Dmitrieva, General psychology. Lecture notes. – M.: Eksmo, 2007. – 128 p.
5. M.A. Lukatsky, M.E. Ostrenkova, Psychology. – M.: Eksmo, 2007. – 416 p.
Types of perception
Perception refers to sensations and can be classified in different ways. The division is carried out according to the characteristics of the object. These include the perception of speech, objects, music or a person by a person; in the latter version, this is social perception in psychology.
Perception is distinguished by modality - visual, gustatory, tactile, auditory, olfactory. The duration of the perceptual process is divided into simultaneous - one-time and successive - unfolded in time.
According to the form of existence of matter, the perception of time, motion and space is divided. These are particularly complex forms of perception.
A person’s perception is also divided according to personality type (visual, kinesthetic, auditory). In short, visual reception of information is inherent in people with a visual type of perception, auditory in auditory people, and tactile is related to kinesthetic.
Space, time and motion
The interaction and combination of different sensations gives the ability to perceive certain forms of existing matter of time, space and movement. Space is almost always perceived by humans. This includes assessing the presence and position of one's own body. As well as visual reading - direction, distance, shape, depth and volume.
The distance of objects and the location of light and shade are of great importance. The olfactory, auditory, vestibular and other sensory systems are involved in the perception of space.
The perception of time is a very subjective concept, but some patterns are noted. All phenomena in life occur in time. The law of present and past tense is that the more the present is filled with events, the shorter it seems. The waiting periods feel very long.
In memories, the opposite picture is present - an eventful period of time is perceived as longer. Estimation of time is very individual. The assessment is influenced by the nature of the activity, structure and motivation. High interest speeds up the time interval, while low interest slows it down. The personality structure, motives, emotions and age of a person also influence here.
Movement is a reflection of the variability of the location of an object in space; the direction and speed of movement are also taken into account.
There are perceptions:
- according to the form of movement - circular, arc-shaped, straight, etc.;
- vibration amplitude - small, medium and large;
- direction - right, left, up, down;
- by duration - short, long;
- by acceleration and speed - fast, slow, smooth or intermittent;
- by the nature of the movement - flexion, rotation, extension.
Social perception
Social perception
- perception aimed at creating an idea about oneself, other people, social groups and social phenomena.
The term was proposed by Jerome Bruner in 1947 to refer to the phenomena of social determination of perceptual processes. The modern interpretation of the term was given within the framework of social psychology.
The mechanisms of social perception include: reflection, identification, causal attribution.
Effects of perception
Social perception is characterized by certain special manifestations of perceptual inaccuracy, called laws, effects, or perceptual errors.
- Effects of stereotyping:
- Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown traits.
- Sequence Effects:
- The primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the subsequent one.
- The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given greater importance than all the information received about him previously.
- Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personal characteristic.
- The effect of presence - the better a person knows something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.
- Advance effect - the absence of previously attributed non-existent advantages leads to disappointment.
- The effect of leniency - the leader exaggerates the positive traits of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a permissive and, to some extent, democratic style).
- The effect of hyper-demandingness - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of his subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for a leader of an authoritarian style).
- The effect of physiognomic reduction - the conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.
- Beauty effect - a more attractive person is assigned more positive traits.
- The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.
- In-group favoritism - “insiders” seem better.
- The effect of negative asymmetry in initial self-esteem—over time, there is a tendency toward the opposite of in-group favoritism.
- Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the “other” treats him the way he treats the “other.”
- The phenomenon of assumption of similarity - a person believes that “their own people” treat other people the same way as he does.
- Projection effect - a person assumes that others have the same qualities as him.
- The phenomenon of ignoring the information value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.
Attribution
Attribution
- attributing characteristics to oneself or another person.
Causal attribution is understood as the interpretation of a communication partner’s behavior by making assumptions about his motives, intentions, emotions, reasons for behavior, personality traits, and then attributing them to the partner. Causal attribution determines social perception (perception) the more, the greater the deficit of information about the communication partner. The results of attribution can become material for the formation of social stereotypes. Stereotyping perception leads to two different consequences. Firstly, to simplify the knowledge of another person (people). Secondly, to the formation of prejudices towards representatives of various social groups (professional, socio-economic, ethnic, etc.)
Impression
Impression
- an opinion, an assessment formed after meeting or coming into contact with someone.
Forming an impression
Forming an impression
- the process of creating one's impressions of others.
The impressions are:
- Behavior patterns
- Abstractions
Impression management
Impression management
- behavior aimed at forming and controlling other people’s impressions of oneself.
Impression management tactics:
- Strengthening your own position
- Strengthening the interlocutor's position
Self-presentation
- behavior aimed at creating a favorable or corresponding to someone's ideals impression of oneself.
According to Gordon's 1996 study, the success rate of impression management tactics breaks down as follows:[7]
- Presenting your interlocutor in the best light
- Agree with the opinion of the interlocutor.
- Self-presentation
- Combination 1-3
- Provision of services
The illusion of reality
The illusion of perception occurs when reality is reflected distortedly, while the effect is sustainable. Illusions can occur in many people under the influence of physical, physiological and psychological reasons.
The breaking of a spoon in a glass of tea is classified as a physical illusion, and the splitting of the image when pressing sideways on the eyeball is considered a physiological illusion. A psychological illusion occurs when identical lines are overestimated up or down when their lengths are objectively equal.
Another example considers overvaluing the top parts of the figure. When dividing a vertical line in half, a person often makes the mistake of setting the middle much higher than the real one.
Reasons for violations
Under certain circumstances, various disturbances in the mechanisms of perception may occur. These may be mental stress, exposure to chemicals, illness or loss of strength. The most famous include hallucinations - images without the real presence of an object.
Hallucinogenic phenomena occur in any modality:
- visual (through images, various events);
- auditory (sounds, clicks, etc.);
- tactile (skin reactions in the form of sensations of cold, burns, crawling insects).
The area of perception is vast, people see the world in different variations, despite the fact that in theory it is the same for everyone.
Consultation “Perception of size. Practical allocation of value" consultation
Consultation “Perception of size. Practical allocation of magnitude."
The child learns to distinguish between size and shape practically. When working with objects, he pays attention to the size, begins to understand that the result of actions in many cases depends on the correct determination of the size of the object, i.e. the size becomes a significant sign for the child.
In the process of working with toys, a child with developmental disabilities gradually begins to distinguish the value visually, although not always accurately. If, during actions that require practical knowledge of magnitude, we teach the child to try, then the visual perception of magnitude will be more accurate.
Based on long-term use of samples and trying on, the child can develop a full-fledged visual perception of size, the ability to isolate it, and correlate objects by size.
The development paths for the perception of size and the perception of shape are the same. However, there are also differences between them. Magnitude is a relative concept. The same object in comparison with others can be perceived as both large and small. Thus, a tree seems tall in comparison with the person standing under it and turns out to be low in comparison with a multi-story building.
At the same time, the quantity has different parameters - height, length, width. Therefore, in addition to the general definition of “big - small”, there are specific ones: “long - short”, “high - low”, “wide - narrow”. All these points must be taken into account when conducting didactic games and exercises.
Games and exercises for the perception of size should be carried out in parallel with games for the perception of shape, so that children master the method of testing on different materials.
“Hide the ball in your palms.” Goal: To learn to focus on the size of objects, to correlate hand actions with the size of objects.
Equipment. Balls of the same color, but two contrasting sizes (large and small), tray.
Progress of the game. The teacher places two balls on the table - a large one and a small one. Shows children how to hide a ball in their palm. Then he calls someone and offers to take any of the two balls and hide it in the same way. If the child takes a small ball, he will be able to complete the task, but if he takes a large ball, then the ball remains visible. The teacher says that the ball is not hidden, it is visible because it is big. Then he gives different balls to all the children and asks them to hide them in their palms. The teacher discusses the results of the task with the children. After this, he distributes the balls to the children again, this time giving them a choice.
“Hide the toys.” Goal: To learn to focus on the size of objects, to correlate hand actions with the size of objects.
Equipment. Bunnies, bears (large and small toys), boxes of two sizes according to the number of children.
Progress of the game. The teacher gives the children two boxes with lids (two sizes) and two toys - large and small. Asks children to hide toys in boxes and close them with lids. Draws attention to the fact that if the lid does not close, it means that the toy is not suitable for this box - it must be hidden in another, otherwise the wolf will come and see the bunny. This way he encourages children to try.
“Push the balls.” (cubes, ovoids, bars). Goal: To learn to correlate planar and volumetric shapes in size, trying, discarding incorrect options and fixing the correct ones.
Equipment. Boxes, each of which has 4-5 holes of the same shape (round, square, rectangular), but of different sizes; geometric shapes of different sizes corresponding to the size of the holes.
Progress of the game. The teacher gives the children boxes and geometric shapes and asks them to put all the figures in the box - each in its own hole. The teacher goes around the children, watches how they act, asks them to try and shows how to do it.
Each child can repeat the task. In the future, children are given boxes with other shapes.
“Hide the nesting doll.” Goal: To introduce children to the principle of folding nesting dolls (small ones hide in a large one); evoke a positive emotional attitude towards toys and actions with them.
Equipment. Double nesting dolls according to the number of children, a large double nesting doll for the teacher, a bear.
Progress of the game. The teacher puts a nesting doll on the table, examines it with the children, then opens it and takes out a small nesting doll: “Another matryoshka! Small!" The teacher shows the bear and invites the nesting dolls to play hide and seek with him. The bear hides, the little nesting doll finds him. Mishka says that now the little nesting doll should hide, and he will look for it. The bear turns away. The little nesting doll asks the big one to hide it. The teacher slowly opens the large nesting doll and just as slowly puts the small one into it, closes both halves and says: “Look, bear!” But he cannot find it and leaves. After this, the teacher distributes nesting dolls to the children, laying out one whole and two halves in front of each one, and asks everyone to hide the small dolls so that the bear does not find them. The bear returns, looks for the nesting dolls, but does not find them and leaves again. The teacher praises the children and rejoices with them
"Build a tower." Goal: To introduce children to the principle of folding a tower, starting from the largest mold.
Equipment. Round sandbox molds (tabs) according to the number of children.
Progress of the game. The teacher takes out the molds nested inside each other, lays them out on the table and says that he will now build a beautiful, durable, high tower. He asks me to carefully look at how to build. Then, gradually starting from the largest mold, places them on top of each other. He plays up the moment of construction: instead of the required mold, he takes one of the small ones, places it unevenly, the building falls: “No, the mold is small, I’ll take a bigger one.” He takes another one, but that one doesn’t fit either. Finally he takes the one he needs and it is firmly installed on the base - it does not move. The teacher rejoices and completes the tower from time to time, testing and trying on the molds and drawing the children’s attention to the need to achieve stability in the structure.
Having completed his tower, the teacher can invite someone else to build the same one next to him or distribute sets of molds to each child and ask them to build their own towers. During the work, the teacher encourages the correct choice of one or another mold and says that thanks to this the tower becomes stable.
In conclusion, the teacher evaluates the children’s work. “Everyone built beautiful, strong towers: at the bottom is the largest mold, and at the top is the smallest.” Then the children collect all the molds, putting them in one. They act without demonstration, on their own. The teacher observes how they transfer the learned principle to a new situation.
“Who will roll the tape sooner?” Goal: Continue to form an attitude towards size as a significant feature, pay attention to length, introduce the words “long”, “short”.
Equipment. Two ribbons, fixed at one end on sticks: one of them is long (50 cm), and the other is short (20 cm); ribbons of the same width and the same color.
Progress of the game. The teacher invites the children to learn how to roll the ribbon, shows how to do it, and lets everyone try it. Then he offers to play the game “Who will roll the tape first?” He calls two people, gives one a long ribbon, the other a short one, and asks everyone to see who will roll up their ribbon first. Naturally, the one with the shorter ribbon wins. After this, the teacher lays out the ribbons on the table so that the difference in their lengths is clearly visible to the children, but does not say anything. Then the children change ribbons. Now the other child wins. When the children sit down, the teacher calls other children and invites one of them to choose a ribbon. He asks why he wants this tape. After the children’s answers, he calls the ribbons “short” and “long” to both children at once and summarizes the children’s actions: “The short ribbon rolls up quickly, and the long ribbon rolls up slowly.”
Visual perception of magnitude
In the games in this section, the child can no longer act using tests. The sizes of objects must be compared visually. However, in case of difficulties, the child can check his choice by overlay. When superimposed, objects of the same size coincide, and if you trace them along a contour, then both contours are felt as one. If the contours do not match, it means that the objects are different in size. Naturally, in this way you can only check objects of the same type that have the same shape.
When correlating objects by size, you should pay attention to different size parameters (length, height, width) in cases where they turn out to be essential for completing the task.
It is important to remember that the child must complete the task independently; his actions should not be preceded by verbal instructions. Only after the child has completed the task should the result he obtained be clarified in words. For example, in the game “Loto” you are given cards with images of large and small nesting dolls. The teacher picks up a sample card and asks: “Who has this?” (You can’t say “who has the big one?”) After the child makes a choice and matches the sample with the image on his card, the teacher says: “That’s right, I have a big matryoshka doll and you have the same big one.”
“Loto (determining an object by size).” Goal: To learn to visually identify objects of sharply different sizes, to connect a visual image with a word.
Equipment. Large cards depicting two objects, each represented by two sizes (large and small); objects are located on the cards in different ways (for example: big house, small house, small tree, big tree; small car, small ball, big car, big ball, etc.), cards with images of individual objects (large and small) .
Progress of the game. The teacher gives the children large cards and one sample card at a time, asking: “Who has this?” The child must not only recognize the object, but also correlate the images of objects by size, that is, correctly superimpose a large object on a large one, a small one on a small one. After this, the result is consolidated in the word: “That’s right, this is a big house.”
In the future, the task becomes more complicated: the cards depict objects of different sizes and different sizes. As each child masters the game, they are given not one, but 2-3 cards.
"Pyramids". Purpose: To introduce the pyramid, to practice stringing rings (option 1); take into account the size when dealing with objects, follow the principle of folding a pyramid (take the largest ring each time), check your choice by placing rings (option 2); fold a pyramid based on visual correlation of values; do not use the superposition method as a verification method (option 3).
Equipment. Pyramids (each of four rings with a cap) according to the number of children. In the future (3rd version of the game), the number of rings increases, they take pyramids of balls, half-balls, half-rings, etc.
The principle of folding pyramids should be practically figured out by children on their own, and not suggested to adults. To do this, it is necessary to give children a variety of pyramids with different numbers of rings of different colors, if possible changing them at each lesson.
Literature: Kataeva A.A., Strebeleva E.A. Didactic games and exercises in teaching preschoolers with developmental disabilities: A manual for teachers. – M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2001. – 224 p. (pp.68-78).
