Thinking and perception. Is perception an intellectual activity? Is visual thinking possible? What is the difference between thinking and perceiving?

Introduction

Perception is a process that has long been intensively studied in psychology.
This is explained, firstly, by the great practical significance of perception, which stands, as it were, at the beginning of all mental development of the individual. In this regard, the problems of sensory education of a child are raised as the basis for the development of mental processes proper, and the problems of organizing perception, teaching it and the appropriate selection of operators for specific activities in the conditions of modern technology, and the problems of visual culture, etc. The emergence of the first hypotheses about nature perception dates back to antiquity. Significant contributions and development of scientific ideas about perception were made by philosophers, physicists, physiologists, and artists. In the second half of the 19th century, ideas about perception became one of the important components of the system of psychological knowledge. In general, early theories of perception corresponded to the provisions of traditional associative psychology. A decisive step in overcoming associationism in the interpretation of perception was made, on the one hand, thanks to the development of I.M. Sechenov’s reflexive concept of the psyche, and on the other hand, thanks to the works of Gestalt psychology, which showed the conditionality of the most important phenomena of perception (such as constancy) by unchanging relationships between the components of the perceptual image.

Currently, the study and development of the process of perception is important, since there is an intensive development of technology and science, and therefore the complexity of perceived objects, the need for a high level of thinking to master new objects, phenomena, etc.

Based on this, the theme of the work was chosen as follows: “The influence of thinking on perception.”

4 pp., 1576 words

DIVERGENT THINKING AS A FACTOR IN THE PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT OF A SENIOR PRESCHOOL CHILD

... modern conditions of education. Currently, the problem of the intellectual and creative development of preschool children, as one of the main criteria for divergent thinking, is becoming very relevant in connection... in this theory, behavioral, where a person’s social actions are influenced by other people. An example is the concept developed by the American scientist W. Maischel...

The purpose of the work is to consider the relationship between thinking and perception.

To achieve this goal, we have put forward the following tasks:

1. Give a general description of the process of perception, study the types and properties of perception.

2. Study the mechanism of the perception process.

3. Identify the relationship between certain types of perception and thinking.

Types of thinking.

The following types of thinking are distinguished:

— Visual and effective - here the solution to the problem is carried out using a real transformation of the situation based on a motor act. Those. the task is given clearly in a concrete form and the method of solution is practical action. This type of thinking is typical for a preschool child. This type of thinking also exists in higher animals.

Visual-figurative - a person recreates the situation necessary to solve a problem in figurative form. Begins to develop in older preschool age. In this case, in order to think, the child does not have to manipulate the object, but must clearly perceive or visualize this object.

- Verbal-logical (theoretical, reasoning, abstract) - thinking appears primarily in the form of abstract concepts and reasoning. Begins to develop at school age. Mastery of concepts occurs in the process of mastering various sciences. At the end of schooling, a system of concepts is formed. Moreover, we use concepts that sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (honesty, pride). The development of verbal-logical thinking does not mean that the previous two types do not develop or disappear altogether. On the contrary, children and adults continue to develop all types of thinking. For example, an engineer or designer achieves greater perfection in visual and effective thinking (or when mastering new technology). In addition, all types of thinking are closely interrelated.

From the point of view of the originality of the problems being solved, thinking can be: creative (productive) and reproducing (reproductive). Creative is aimed at creating new ideas, reproductive is the application of ready-made knowledge and skills.

Forms of thinking - concepts, judgments, conclusions.

A concept is a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive features of objects and phenomena of reality (for example, the concept of “man”). A distinction is made between everyday concepts (acquired through practical experience) and scientific concepts (acquired through the learning process). Concepts arise and develop in the process of development of science and technology. In them, people record the results of experience and knowledge.

The content of concepts is revealed in judgments.

Judgment is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and characteristics.

Inference is a connection between thoughts (concepts, judgments), as a result of which from one or more judgments we obtain another judgment, extracting it from the content of the original judgments.

SPADILO.RU

Thinking

Scientists of antiquity (Epicurus, Aristotle) ​​began to study thinking, who examined thinking through the prism of logic and philosophy. In the Middle Ages, thinking was studied only empirically; during the Renaissance, two opposing movements were formed: sensationalism (preference is given to sensation and perception) and rationalism (thinking does not depend on feeling). In the 19th century, the truth of a thought was proven not by its correspondence to reality, but by its usefulness. By the 20th century, the main theories of thinking emerged:

Behaviorism , according to which thinking is the process of forming connections between stimulus and response.

Psychoanalysis , whose followers studied the dependence of thinking on human needs, as well as the unconscious part of thinking.

Psychological activity theory , which states that thinking is a tool for solving problems and changing reality.

Thinking is...

• Natural process, brain function;
• reflection of objective reality in concepts, judgments and theories, which constitute the highest level of human knowledge of the world.

The sources of thinking can only be sensations, but thinking itself goes beyond sensuality and is capable of giving a person knowledge about objects and phenomena with which he cannot directly contact.

Thinking is studied by several sciences: logic, theory of knowledge, psychology, neurophysiology, cybernetics.

In order to begin to think (that is, to become a subject of thinking), a person needs to master social experience: language (speech), concepts and logic. Without laws and practical experience acquired by humanity, an individual cannot competently set problems and solve them.

Thinking is inextricably linked with language . Language is an objective material form of thinking; it expresses human thoughts.

Thinking is personal. This is manifested in the choice of tasks and methods for solving them by each specific person, in the feelings that a person experiences when solving each specific problem.

Stages of thinking

The thinking process is divided into three stages:

• Statement of the problem (formulation of the question).
• Search for the optimal solution.
• Achieving new knowledge (that is, deciding on further actions or final/partial resolution of the issue).

There are various classifications of types of thinking, but we will focus on the one, the knowledge of which is required to prepare for the Unified State Exam

Thinking involves performing a number of logical operations. The most famous and frequently used:

Comparison is a quantitative or qualitative comparison of the properties of an object/phenomenon.

Analysis (“separation”) is the selection and study of separate areas of research.

Synthesis is the combination and generalization of previously scattered information.

Abstraction is a distraction from unimportant connections/phenomena in the process of cognition. The consequence of abstraction is abstraction (theoretical generalization).

Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning from the particular to the whole.

Deductive reasoning is a method of reasoning from the whole to the particular.

Thinking is directly related to activity, since it is in the process of thinking that a program of actions is developed, which are subsequently implemented in practice.

Activity

Activity is...

- a form of active relationship to the world inherent in a person, generated by needs and regulated by consciousness.

- expedient change and transformation of the world, a creative attitude towards the surrounding world.

Any activity in relation to the world cannot be called activity. The activity has a number of characteristics:

1. Creation of an artificial human habitat by adapting to natural conditions and transforming them.
2. Conscious goal setting.
3. Impact on the surrounding world with the help of special tools, with the help of which human capabilities are expanded and multiplied.
4. Creativity, productivity and creative nature of activity.

Activity as a process has a specific structure:

There are four main types of activities, each with unique characteristics:

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Chapter III. The influence of thinking on perception

There are both similarities and differences between solving a perceptual problem and solving a mental problem. In both cases, you have to look for a hypothesis that would explain the observed facts, in both cases there are elegant and inelegant solutions, in both cases the solution often comes unexpectedly, like a sudden insight. However, perceptual problem solving usually occurs super-fast, it is unconscious and not expressed verbally (this does not mean that thinking always occurs slowly, consciously and is expressed verbally, but often this is still the case or partly so); it does not seem to require the strict motivation that demonstrative thinking requires; Unlike most difficult problems of thinking, in perception the correct result is almost always achieved; and finally, solving a perceptual problem results in a perception rather than an idea.

Obviously, perception is unreasonable in one respect. We often perceive phenomena not as we know them, or we perceive what we know very well as unlikely or simply impossible. What is perceived may at times contradict what is known about the situation.

Perception is an active process that involves learning. Hunters can recognize birds from incredible distances in flight, and they are able to use small differences to identify objects that look the same to other people. The same thing occurs when doctors look at x-rays or microscopic slides to look for signs of pathology. There is no doubt that perceptual learning takes place in this case, but we still do not know exactly how far the influence of learning on perception extends.

A brick and a piece of explosive may look and feel very similar, but they will behave very differently. We usually define objects not by their appearance, but rather by their purpose or by their basic properties. A table can have different shapes, but it is an object on which other objects can be placed; it can be square or round, but still remain a table. In order for the perception to correspond to the object, that is, to be true, our expectations must be met.

According to modern science, “the hemispheres are responsible for a variety of mental activities, manifested in attention, perception, memory, thinking, emotions and motivation.” With left-hemisphere thinking, information is processed inductively - logically, linearly, sequentially, from analysis to synthesis. The right hemisphere is characterized by the use of deduction; information processing is carried out in the form of synthesis and simultaneous integration of different influences (V.P. Leutin, M. Grinder).

The left hemisphere is considered the basis of formal logical thinking, the right hemisphere - associative-empirical, metaphorical (V.L. Deglin, N.N. Nikolaenko).

According to M. Grinder, people with a pronounced left-hemisphere organization “are successful in mastering writing, symbols, language, reading, phonetics, arrangement of parts, conversation and recitation, and auditory associations.” The prerogative of people with right-hemisphere specialization is imagination, random awareness, figurative memory, spatial connections, color sensitivity, singing, music, artistry, kinesthetic experiences (M. Grinder, M.A. Pavlova).

Verbal information is better perceived by the left hemisphere, non-verbal information by the right.

Topic: “Perception. Thinking".

A. Chistyakov 03.01.-10.01.21, WWW C. Slipchenko 06-14.03.21, Chudodeevo A. Chistyakov 01-09.05.21, Galaxy

Home > Theory > Topic: “Perception. Thinking".

Our senses have limitations in the amplitude and frequency of perceived processes

, and this undoubtedly leaves an imprint on our
perception and understanding
of the world.
But what is even more important is that we do not realize and do not fully understand that the Universe does not “stand still”; it changes all the time
, even when “nothing happens” around.

This can be especially clearly illustrated by the example of the perception of processes. It is obvious that any process has: present, past and future

, but not everyone realizes that we always “observe” (see, hear, feel) only
the present
(real “time”), and with
a slight delay
, because
the act (process) of perceiving and processing information also has a duration.
And, if we can still record the past with the help of technical devices, then observing the future is inaccessible to us in principle: we can only imagine, imagine, invent it and
make it
present.

What we observe with the help of photos and videos (and any measuring instruments) is not the world itself as such, these are just its traces

– imprints (reflections) that humanity has learned to record with the help of technical devices, i.e.
"crutches" for the brain. We have learned to store them, process them, build scientific models based on these data, but at the same time we lose sight of the fact that any, even the most accurate models, are always simpler than the real processes they describe. In addition, we always lag behind the real world itself in creating models of the world and the processes occurring in it, because it is changing faster than we can imagine. Let me add that these traces store information only about the external component of processes that are already the past, i.e. show us what the world was like some time ago. For example, you can record a person on video and then review it. You will see and hear only the external component, i.e. what a person did and said, but what he thought
(imagined) at that time, i.e. his true desires, intentions, needs, goals cannot be captured on film.

When we try to understand what time

, as it “flows, accelerates, slows down, stretches, stands still or flies,” then, unnoticed by ourselves, we switch to the language
of metaphors
, which in turn only complicates an already difficult situation.
However, in this topic we will analyze the main difficulties that objectively arise when perceiving the Universe, and typical mistakes made by consciousness in the process of thinking
, i.e. processing traces - the results of the interaction of the senses with the world.

Lecture: “Perception. Thinking". 2020.12. Webinar from 2020.12.: Perception. The dimension of our world. Standard thinking mistakes we make.

Perception. Information. Energy. To understand what information

we will have to deal with two questions: what determines
the perception
and
understanding
of information.

Perception. Frequency response factor. Our vision and hearing have limitations in the amplitude and frequency of perceived signals. Can extreme fluctuations influence us?

Transfer of observation point. When observing, it is extremely important to understand where the observation point

and whether we know how to move it.
directly depends on this .
If you didn't understand, the picture shows ballerina slippers. The photo was taken from below through glass.

Ways to change perception. ISS. Perception and thinking. Altered States of Consciousness (ASC). Ways to change perception and thinking. Signs of ASC. Tests.

Perception of processes How does the perception of objects differ from the perception of processes? What difficulties will we encounter in this topic?

Visual illusions It is better to see once than to hear 100 times. Is this a familiar saying? Take a look and see for yourself that it is not so difficult to deceive the brain.

"Logical Trick" by Lewis Carroll. Lewis Carol (1832-1898) - writer, mathematician, philosopher, photographer. He is famous throughout the world not only for his books, but also for his logical riddles.

Thinking. Understanding. What does thinking depend on? What does it mean: understand the meaning, understand the intention, understand the other person. How to check that you have been understood?

Model perception of reality Model perception (description) of reality. Sensory perception of reality.

List of films List of films for participants of the GO-RA project
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Speech

Speech is the process of a person’s practical use of language in order to communicate with other people.

Unlike speech, language is a system of conventional symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds that have a certain meaning and meaning for people are transmitted. In the process of communication, people express thoughts and feelings using language, achieve mutual understanding in order to carry out joint activities.

Language and speech, like thinking, arise and develop in the process and under the influence of work. They are the property of only humans: animals have neither language nor speech.

Speech has its own content. The sounds that make up the words of oral speech have a complex physical structure; they distinguish between the frequency, amplitude and vibration shape of air sound waves.

Of special importance in speech sounds is their timbre, which is based on overtones that accompany and complement the main tone of the speech sound.

Speech has its own properties:

– the content of speech is determined by the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations expressed in it, their significance and correspondence to reality;

– understandability of speech is achieved by syntactically correct construction of sentences, as well as by using pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words using logical stress;

– the expressiveness of speech is associated with its emotional richness (in its expressiveness it can be bright, energetic or, conversely, sluggish, pale);

– the ineffectiveness of speech lies in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.

Speech performs certain functions:

– expressions (lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expands the possibilities of communication);

– influence (consists in a person’s ability to motivate people to action through speech);

– designations (consists in a person’s ability, through speech, to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names that are unique to them);

– messages (consists in the exchange of thoughts between people through words, phrases).

There are the following types of speech:

– oral is communication between people through uttering words, on the one hand, and hearing them by people, on the other;

– written is speech through written signs;

– monologue is the speech of one person expressing his thoughts for a relatively long time;

– dialogical is a conversation in which at least two interlocutors participate;

– external – speech that performs the functions of communication;

– internal is speech that does not perform the function of communication, but only serves the thinking process of a particular person;

Systems that provide speech can be divided into two groups: peripheral and central. The central ones include certain structures of the cerebral movement of the brain, and the peripheral ones include the vocal apparatus and hearing organs. Speech is based on the activity of the second signaling system, the work of which consists primarily in the analysis and synthesis of generalized speech signals.

Speech at the same time is a complex system of conditioned reflexes. It is based on the second signaling system, the conditioned stimuli of which are words in their audio (oral speech) or visual form. The sounds and forms of words, being at first neutral stimuli for an individual, become conditioned speech stimuli in the process of re-combining them with the primary signal stimulus, causing perceptions and sensations of objects and their properties.

As a result, they acquire semantic meaning and become signals of the immediate stimuli with which they were combined. The temporary neural connections formed in this case are further strengthened through constant verbal reinforcement, become strong and acquire a two-way character: the sight of an object immediately evokes a reaction of naming it, and, conversely, an audible or visible word immediately evokes the idea of ​​the object designated by this word.

Topic 5. Thinking and activity

Unified State Exam 2018 in social studies - Man

Thinking

– an active process of reflecting the objective world in concepts, judgments, theories, etc.

Despite the fact that thinking is a process that takes place in the human cerebral cortex, it is social

. After all, to formulate and solve any problem, a person uses laws, rules, concepts that were discovered in human practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with language

. A person's thoughts are expressed in language. With its help, a person understands the objective world. This happens because language somehow corresponds to the objects of reality, their properties and relationships. In other words, there are elements in the language that replace named objects. They play the role of representatives of objects of knowledge in thinking; they are signs of objects, properties or relationships.

Indirect character

thinking lies in the fact that a cognizing person, with the help of thinking, penetrates into the hidden properties, connections, relationships of objects.

The thinking process goes through a number of stages.

Thinking is personal

. This is manifested in what tasks attract the attention of a particular person, how he solves each of them, and what feelings he experiences when solving them. The subjective aspect appears in the relationship a person has to what he learns, and in the conditions in which this process takes place, and in the perfection of the methods used, and in the wealth of knowledge and the success of its application.

of the emotional and volitional sides of the personality in this process

, which manifest themselves: in the form
of motives
, motives for the sake of which a person undertakes difficult mental work;
in the form of a reaction
to a discovery made, to a solution found or to a failure (joy, pride, self-confidence; annoyance, grief, despondency, apathy, etc.); in the attitude that a person experiences towards the content of the task itself.

Thinking is a complex socio-historical phenomenon

. Its development is characterized by increased abstraction and generalization.

At different stages of human development and his mental abilities, different types of thinking dominated.

In their pure form, certain types of thinking are difficult to notice. It is advisable to talk about the predominance of one type or another.

In the process of thinking, man gradually discovered an increasing number of laws in the world around him, that is, significant, repeating, stable connections of things.

Having formulated the laws, man began to use them in further knowledge, which gave him the opportunity to actively influence nature and social life.

Sample assignment

B2.

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, are associated with the concept of “thinking”.

Image; language; performance; temperament; sign.

Find and indicate a term that is not related to the concept of “thinking”.

Answer:

Temperament.

Topic 6. The purpose and meaning of human life →

← Topic 4. Human Activity, Its Basic Forms

Topic 5. Thinking and activity

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Table 1

Levels of Thinking

§ 2. Individual psychological characteristics of thinking

Physiologists associate the predominance of a visual or verbal-logical type of thinking with the asymmetry of the brain, the greater development of its right or left hemisphere.

The idea of ​​functional heterogeneity of different parts of the brain was first expressed by Franz I. Gall. According to his ideas, all human abilities are determined by the activity of specific areas of the brain.

The foundations of neurophysiology in our country were laid by V.M. Bekhterev. According to the scientist, “it is impossible to recognize complete identity in the functions of the right and left frontal lobes”

As a result of numerous observations and experiments, the physiologist concluded that “for mental activity, the left prefrontal region seems more important, as it is closely related to the production of speech.”

The constant functional interaction of the cortical centers of both hemispheres is ensured by brain spikes, and, as V.M. established. Bekhterev, these adhesions are of decisive importance in mental activity: “the relationship between the centers of both hemispheres, established with the help of cerebral adhesions, seems essential for the development of mental abilities, and only thanks to their presence is the full flowering of mental activity possible.”

Experimental data by V.M. Bekhterev were confirmed and clarified by the research of A.R. Luria. Studying brain aphasia, that is, diseases in which the reproduction or understanding of articulate speech is impaired due to brain damage, and not due to changes directly in the speech apparatus, the neurosurgeon divided them into two categories: syntagmatic and paradigmatic. The first are associated with difficulties in the dynamic organization of speech utterance and are observed with damage to the anterior parts of the left hemisphere. The latter occur with damage to the posterior parts of the left hemisphere and are associated with a violation of speech codes (phonemic, articulatory, semantic).

List of used literature:

1. Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. - M.: MSU, 1983.

2. Large psychological dictionary / comp. and general ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, V.P. Zinchenko, - St. Petersburg: Prime-EVROZNAK, 2007.

3. Velichkovsky B.M., Zinchenko V.P., Luria A.R. Psychology of perception. - M.: Nauka, 1973.

4. Vygotsky L.S. Psychology. - M.: Vlados, 2002.

5. Grinder, M. Correction of the school conveyor / M. Grinder. - M.: B/i, 1994.

6. Logvimenko A.D. Psychology of perception. - M.: Education, 1987.

7. Nemov R.S. Psychology. In 3 books. - M.: Vlados, 2002.

8. Pavlov, I.P. Full collection op. / I.P. Pavlov. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the RSFSR, 1951. - T. III. - Book 2.

9. Petrovsky A.V., Eroshevsky M.G. Psychology. - M.: Vlados, 2000.

10. Petukhov V.V. Psychology of thinking. - M.: Education, 1987.

11. Psychological Dictionary. / Ed. Yu.L. Namera. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2003.

12. Rean A.A., Bordovskaya N.V., Rozum S.I. Psychology and pedagogy. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003.

13. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

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Thinking processes.

There are several basic mental processes (mental operations) with the help of which mental activity is carried out.

Analysis is the mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts, identifying individual features in it. Analysis can be practical or mental.

Synthesis is the mental combination of individual elements, parts and characteristics into a single whole. But synthesis is not a mechanical connection of parts.

Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked and provide comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, based on the results of analysis, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.

Comparison is a comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities or differences between them. Thanks to this thinking process, we understand most objects, because... we know an object only by equating it with something or distinguishing it from something.

As a result of comparison, we identify something common in the compared objects. That. Thus, a generalization is built on the basis of comparison.

Generalization is the mental grouping of objects into groups according to those common characteristics that are highlighted during the comparison process. Through this process, conclusions, rules and classifications are made (apples, pears, plums are fruits).

Abstraction consists in the fact that, by isolating any properties of the object being studied, a person is distracted from the rest. By abstraction, concepts are created (length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc.).

Concretization involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content (give an example of a rule).

Thinking as a problem solving process.

The need for thinking arises primarily when a new problem appears in front of a person in the course of life. Those. thinking is necessary in situations in which a new goal arises, and the old methods of activity are no longer sufficient to achieve it. Such situations are called problematic. It is in a problem situation that the thinking process begins. In the course of activity, a person encounters something unknown, thinking is immediately included in the activity, and the problematic situation turns into a task perceived by the person.

A task is the goal of an activity, given under certain conditions and requiring the use of means adequate to these conditions to achieve it. Any task includes: goal, condition (known), sought (unknown). Depending on the nature of the final goal, a distinction is made between practical tasks (aimed at transforming material objects) and theoretical ones (aimed at understanding reality, for example, studying).

The principle of solving the problem: the unknown is always connected with something known, i.e. the unknown, interacting with the known, reveals some of its qualities.

Thinking and problem solving are closely related to each other. But this connection is not clear-cut. Problem solving is carried out only with the help of thinking. But thinking is manifested not only in solving problems, but also, for example, in acquiring knowledge, understanding text, posing a problem, i.e. for cognition (mastery of experience).

Individual characteristics of thinking.

Each person's thinking has some differences in certain properties.

Independence is a person’s ability to put forward new tasks and find the necessary solutions without resorting to frequent help from other people.

Breadth is when a person’s cognitive activity covers various areas (broad outlook).

Flexibility is the ability to change the initially planned solution plan if it is no longer satisfactory.

Speed ​​is a person’s ability to quickly understand a complex situation, quickly think and make a decision.

Depth is the ability to penetrate into the essence of the most complex issues, the ability to see a problem where other people do not have a question (you need to have a Newtonian head to see a problem in a falling apple).

Criticality is the ability to objectively evaluate one’s own and others’ thoughts (not consider one’s thoughts to be absolutely correct).

15. Types of memory depending on the content of the memorized material and the form of its perception

Memory is a specific form of mental reflection of reality, ensuring the accumulation, preservation and reproduction of impressions about the surrounding world; the basis for the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities and their subsequent use.

There are a number of basic (mnemonic) processes in memory: memorization, storage, forgetting, restoration. Through memorization, information is entered into memory. based on the inclusion of newly arriving elements into existing systems of associative connections. Retention refers to processes that facilitate the retention of information for a more or less long period of time. Retention is closely related to forgetting. In essence, these are two sides of a single process: with incomplete preservation they speak of partial forgetting, and vice versa.

A person’s use of his experience is carried out through the restoration of what was previously learned. Its simplest form, carried out under conditions of repeated perception, is recognition. A more complex form of restoration is reproduction, in which thoughts, images, experiences, movements, etc., known from past experience, are updated.

An essential feature of reproduction is its selective nature: it is associated with the processing of what is perceived, which is determined by the specific conditions and task of the activity, as well as the individual characteristics of the subject, how he understands and experiences what is being reproduced. Therefore, memory cannot be considered regardless of the characteristics and properties of the individual, his current state: orientation, motivation, inclinations, interests, level of activity, etc.

In fact, the memory of any person can be considered strictly individual, unique, since it is a reflection of the experience of a particular individual. Individual differences in memory are explained as the preferential development of one type of memory.

There are people who have so-called phenomenal memory. It is usually characterized by exceptionally strong imagery. Vivid imagery of memory is also characteristic of children; quite often they exhibit the phenomena of eidetism (the ability to arbitrarily, accurately and in detail reproduce visual images of what was previously perceived).

Peculiarities of higher nervous activity (for example, inertia) are indicated as one of the factors determining individual and age-related characteristics of memory.

Types of memory. There are several classifications of types of memory. In accordance with the type of material being remembered, it is customary to distinguish verbal, figurative, motor and emotional memory. Genetic stages of memory development. (P.P. Blonsky): from motor to emotional, figurative and, further, to verbal as the highest type of human memory.

According to the cultural-historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky, 2 lines can be distinguished in the development of a child’s memory: direct (mechanical) and indirect memorization. In addition, the development of arbitrary forms of memory, building on its natural, involuntary types, is of great importance.

The most important role in the development of memory is played by thinking, primarily the formation of concepts. L. S. Vygotsky argued that “for a young child to think means to remember, for a teenager to remember means to think.” With age, not only the structure of memory itself changes, but also its place among other psychological functions. According to the views of A. N. Leontyev, the development of a child’s memory proceeds from associative-mechanical to logical.

Not all types of memory develop equally in healthy, normal and developmentally disabled people. Mental development delays are characterized by a predominance of associative-mechanical memory over logical memory, and involuntary forms of memorization over voluntary ones. In modern neuropsychology, it is customary to separate modality-nonspecific, or general memory, and various types of modality-specific memory (visual, auditory, motor...).

When characterizing the memorization process, attention should be paid to the influence of the interference mechanism on the quality and quantity of reproduced, recalled material. The effect of interference or lack thereof may indicate dysfunction of the corresponding cerebral hemisphere. Also of great importance for the manifestation of interfering influence is the age of the subjects and the presence of psychoneurological, residual organic disorders.

Depending on which analyzer takes the greatest part in the perception of the memorized material, visual, auditory, tactile (tactile) memory, etc. are distinguished.

Long-term memory is the process of long-term retention of previously memorized objects in memory. Long-term memory task. is to preserve what is needed for the future. It is associated with the organization of behavior over long periods of time, which inevitably requires foresight. Therefore, the determining cause of long-term memory is the information content of the signal. The semantic (notional) proximity of the remembered elements is important for it. Various types of memory characteristic of humans are combined into a functional hierarchy, numbering several levels: memory of emotions, memory of images, memory of concepts, memory of words. There are other classifications

Short-term memory (working memory) is a type of memory that is used in the process of solving certain problems. It manifests itself, for example, when a person is recording a lecture, performing a computational operation, constructing a phrase, etc. Short-term memory is associated primarily with primary orientation in the environment and therefore is aimed mainly at fixing the total number of newly appearing signals outside depending on their information content. If a person does not specifically repeat what is transferred to short-term memory, then the storage duration does not exceed several tens of seconds (at best, several minutes).

Mechanisms of memory. Modern research connects memory processes with the so-called “trace” processes, the essence of which boils down to the fact that the nervous system can accurately preserve “traces” of various influences for a long time.

Memory capacity. A quantitative indicator of material stored in memory or reproduced.

Chapter I. Perception and its properties

Cognition is the assimilation of the sensory content of the experienced, or experienced, state of affairs, states, processes in order to find the truth. Cognition refers to both (in a broad sense) a process, which would be more correctly designated by the word “cognition,” and (in a narrow sense) the result of this process. Cognition contains an assessment that is based on experience.

Cognition as an activity includes mental processes: perception, imagination, thinking, which act as the most important components of any human activity. Without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible; they act as its integral internal moments.

Perception in the process of practical activity acquires its most important human qualities. In activity, its main types are formed: perception of depth, direction and speed of movement, time and space.

Imagination is also connected with activity. Firstly, a person is not able to imagine or imagine something that has never appeared in experience, was not an element, subject, condition or moment of any activity. The texture of imagination is a reflection, although not a literal one, of the experience of practical activity.

§ 1. The concept of perception

perception thinking individual psychological

Perception is the process of forming, through active actions, a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects the analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception the entire object, in the totality of its invariant properties, is represented as a unit of interaction.

8 pages, 3558 words

Mechanisms of space and motion perception

...movements. Accordingly, they also talk about a person’s visual perception of movement, which includes perception ... by memory. Thinking The process of cognitive activity of an individual, characterized by a generalized and ... immediately after the presentation of a conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal is heading... A double arrow is the formation of a temporary connection, which corresponds to the “pathway” of the connection between neurons, light, sound...

The image of perception appears as a result of the synthesis of sensations, the possibility of which, according to A.N. Leontiev, arose in phylogenesis in connection with the transition of living beings from a homogeneous, objectively unformed environment to an environment, objectively formed. Depending on the biological significance of the perceived object, either one or another quality may be leading, which determines which analyzer information will be considered a priority.

In accordance with this, visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory perception are distinguished. In this case, a particularly important role in all types of perception is played by motor or kinesthetic sensations, which regulate the real relationship of the subject with the object according to the feedback principle. In particular, in visual perception, along with the visual sensations themselves (color, light), kinesthetic sensations accompanying eye movements (accommodation, convergence and divergence, tracking) are also integrated.

Also in the process of auditory perception, weak movements of the articulatory apparatus play an active role. It is characteristic of a person that the images of his perception integrate the use of speech. Due to verbal designation, the possibility of abstracting and generalizing the properties of objects arises.

The main properties of perception are objectivity, integrity, constancy, categoricality, apperception. The microgenesis of the image of perception includes a number of phases associated with the perceptual tasks being solved: from undifferentiated perception to the formation of a holistic image of an object, on the basis of which adequate activity can be built.

Perception is based on a more complex analytical and synthetic work of the central sections of the analyzers and their complex interaction than in sensation. In the case of a complex but unimodal stimulus, neural connections arise within one analyzer. An example of such a stimulus is a melody, which is a combination of individual sounds. In this case, neural connections arise not only to the individual sounds themselves, but also to their relationships. A song or aria is perceived as familiar, regardless of the vocal characteristics of the performer, if the harmonic relationships between sounds are correctly preserved.

13 pages, 6307 words

13.Definition of attention. Types of attention

The direction and concentration of consciousness on certain objects or certain activities while being distracted from everything else is called
attention.
Attention is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of some information coming through the senses and ignoring others.

5 pages, 2020 words

Human perception of information

MINISTRY OF EDUCAMENT AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Russian State Humanitarian University" (RGGU) Branch of RSUH in Balashikha Department of Mathematical and Natural Science Disciplines Abstract on Computer Science Human perception of information 2nd year student of correspondence course of specialty 080504 Shcheglova Yulia ...

Types of attention

Let's consider the main types of attention. These are natural and socially conditioned attention, direct and indirect attention, involuntary and voluntary attention, sensory and intellectual attention.

Natural attention is given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of information novelty. The main mechanism that ensures the functioning of such attention is called the orienting reflex. It is associated with the activity of the reticular formation and novelty detector neurons.

Socially conditioned attention develops during life as a result of training and upbringing, and is associated with the volitional regulation of behavior, with a selective, conscious response to objects.

Direct attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of the person.

Indirect attention is regulated using special means, such as gestures, words, pointing signs, and objects.

Involuntary attention is associated with reflexive attitudes. It is established and maintained independently of a person's conscious intention. The properties of the stimuli acting on it, their intensity or novelty, emotional coloring, connection with drives, needs or interests lead to the fact that certain objects, phenomena or persons capture our attention and rivet it for a while to themselves. This is the primary form of attention. It is a direct and involuntary product of interest.

Voluntary attention is distinguished from involuntary attention. The so-called voluntary attention is consciously directed and regulated attention, in which the subject consciously chooses the object to which it is directed. This term serves to designate the fact, central in its significance, that human cognition, like his activity, rises to the level of conscious organization, and does not occur only by gravity, spontaneously, under the power of externally acting forces. The so-called voluntary attention occurs where the object to which attention is directed does not itself attract it. Voluntary attention, therefore, is always indirect in nature.

13 pages, 6332 words

The relationship between voluntary and involuntary memory in preschool children

... for all people, then the other three other types of memory are rather professional types. 2. According to the nature of the goals of the activity, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary. Involuntary memory is a memory that ... remembers the color, shape and some other features of a car. Long-term memory is the retention of information in the psyche for a long time. It is believed that …

Involuntary attention is usually presented as passive, voluntary attention as active (James).

The first is directed by factors beyond our control: a sudden noise, a bright color, a feeling of hunger; the second is directed by us ourselves. This second difference, however, is relative: involuntary attention is not pure passivity, and it includes the activity of the subject, just as, on the other hand, voluntary attention is not pure activity; also conditioned by external conditions - the object, it also includes elements of passivity. And finally, the third feature that completes the definition of voluntary attention: it is a volitional operation. Conscious regulation is the most essential in “voluntary” attention.

In distinguishing between voluntary and involuntary attention, there is no need, however, to separate one from the other and outwardly contrast them with each other. There is no doubt that voluntary attention develops from involuntary attention.

On the other hand, voluntary attention turns into involuntary. Involuntary attention is usually due to immediate interest. Voluntary attention is required where there is no such immediate interest, and we, with a conscious effort, direct our attention in accordance with the tasks that confront us, with the goals that we set for ourselves. As the work in which we are engaged and to which we first voluntarily directed our attention acquires immediate interest for us, voluntary attention passes into involuntary attention. Taking into account this transition of involuntary attention to voluntary and voluntary to involuntary is of central importance for the correct theoretical reflection of the real course of attention processes and for the practical correct organization of work, in particular educational work.

In the psychological literature, Titchener noted the transition of voluntary attention to involuntary attention, when, along with “primary” involuntary and “secondary” voluntary attention, he also spoke about the third stage in the development of attention, which marks the transition from voluntary again to involuntary primary attention. This stage is also called post-voluntary attention.

But, according to S.L. According to Rubinstein, it still represents a type of voluntary attention, although no effort is required to maintain attention under these conditions, because it is regulated by a consciously adopted focus on a specific task. It is this - and not the presence of more or less effort - that is the initial, main characteristic of the so-called voluntary attention of a person, as consciously regulated attention.

7 pages, 3355 words

Memory and its types 2

... techniques, without volitional efforts, then this memory is involuntary. A person remembers an interesting book. If they put ... memory. 3. Information is stored in long-term memory mainly in semantic form. 4. Information in long-term memory... auditory and motor types of memory. · A person has a visual type of memory, remembering the text of a book, ...

Finally, we can distinguish between sensory and intellectual attention. The first is primarily associated with emotions and the selective functioning of the senses, and the second with concentration and direction of thought. In sensory attention, the center of consciousness is some sensory impression, and in intellectual attention, the object of interest is thought.

14.Memory. Types of memory.

The processes of remembering, preserving and reproducing a person’s experience are called
memory.
Depending on the activity of storing material, instantaneous, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic memory are distinguished.

Instantaneous (iconic) memory

represents a direct reflection of the image of information perceived by the senses. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s.

Short-term memory

retains for a short period of time (on average about 20 s.) a generalized image of the perceived information, its most essential elements. The capacity of short-term memory is 5–9 units of information and is determined by the amount of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce after a single presentation. The most important feature of short-term memory is its selectivity. From instant memory, only that information comes into it that corresponds to the current needs and interests of a person and attracts his increased attention. “The average person’s brain,” Edison said, “does not perceive even a thousandth part of what the eye sees.”

RAM

designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period of time necessary to perform some action or operation. The duration of RAM is from several seconds to several days.

Long-term memory

capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time, while there is (but not always) the possibility of its repeated reproduction. In practice, the functioning of long-term memory is usually associated with thinking and volitional efforts.

9 pages, 4097 words

Human brain and memory

Ministry of Higher Education of the Russian Federation Far Eastern State Academy of Economics and Management ABSTRACT Human brain and memory: molecular aspect Completed by: student 512 MO group Muzychenko M.A. Checked by: Professor, Doctor F.M.N. Savchenko V.N. Vladivostok 2002 Contents Introduction……………………………………………………………..3 Chapter 1: “The human brain”………………… ……………………..4 1.1. Cells...

Genetic memory

is determined by the genotype and is passed on from generation to generation. It is obvious that human influence on this type of memory is very limited (if it is possible at all).

Depending on the analyzer that predominates in the process of memory functioning, motor, visual, auditory, {tactile, olfactory, gustatory}, emotional and other types of memory are distinguished.

In humans, visual perception is predominant. For example, we often know a person by sight, although we cannot remember his name. Visual memory is responsible for storing and reproducing visual images.

. It is directly related to a developed imagination: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, more easily remembers and reproduces. The Chinese have a proverb: “It is better to see once than to hear a thousand times.” Dale Carnegie explains this phenomenon by saying that “the nerves leading from the eyes to the brain are twenty-five times thicker than those leading from the ear to the brain.”

Auditory memory

- this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. A special type of speech memory is verbal-logical, which is closely related to word, thought and logic.

Motor memory

represents the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of a variety of complex movements. She participates in the formation of motor skills. A striking example of motor memory is handwritten text reproduction, which, as a rule, involves the automatic writing of once learned characters.

Emotional memory

- this is a memory of experiences. It is involved in all types of memory, but is especially evident in human relationships. The strength of memorizing material is based on emotional memory: what evokes emotions in a person is remembered without much difficulty and for a longer period.

The capabilities of tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory are very limited; and do not play a special role in a person’s life.

The types of memory discussed above only characterize the sources of initial information and are not stored in memory in its pure form. In the process of memorization (reproduction), information undergoes various changes: sorting, selection, generalization, coding, synthesis, as well as other types of information processing.

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the process of memorizing and reproducing material, memory is divided into voluntary and involuntary

.

In the first case, a person is given a special mnemonic task (memorization, recognition, preservation and reproduction), carried out through volitional efforts. Involuntary memory functions automatically, without much effort on the part of the person. Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary; in many cases in life it is superior to it.