Psychological knowledge
Definition 1
Psychological knowledge is knowledge that is based on psychological facts and theoretical reasoning about the patterns and mechanisms of the formation, development and functioning of the human psyche.
There are quite a lot of facts in psychology today that show that a person’s new knowledge about himself changes his relationships, goals, states and experiences, which means that psychology is a science that creates a person, and not only knows him.
Knowledge is a reflection in human consciousness of the properties and characteristics of a cognizable object. Knowledge constructs self-awareness and is its element.
Note 1
Consciousness in relation to knowledge is the form of its existence.
Consciousness accompanies any knowledge and at the same time it is not the only product of subject-object interaction.
Along with knowledge, we can talk about opinions and beliefs. They also constitute the consciousness of the knowing subject, but only in a qualitatively different form. Using the categories of absolute and relative, you can explain the differences between them. Generics can use the term “cognition” - a product of cognitive activity. In this case, knowledge is cognition, which is characterized by the unity of the relative and absolute. Knowledge in this sense is a process - it exists in the process of transition from less definite knowledge to more definite and complete knowledge.
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Unlike knowledge, faith is a cognition where the absolutization of the relative occurs, and opinion is a cognition where the relativization of the absolute takes place. If a person’s consciousness is constituted not by faith and opinions, but mainly by knowledge, then the person is inclined to constructive dialogue. A person who has knowledge is competent.
Another system of oppositions, which includes the concept of knowledge, is “knowledge-abilities-skills”. Skills and abilities are interpreted as forms of cognitive activity of the subject.
Note 2
Knowledge is always subjective, but skills and abilities are subjective and characterize a person’s ability to transform.
In the conditioning of psychological knowledge by its specific object, one can detect a feature that underlies all the specific characteristics of psychological knowledge. In its essential part, psychological knowledge is knowledge about consciousness.
Concept of knowledge. Levels, types and forms of knowledge.
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Knowledge is a form of existence and systematization of the results of human cognitive activity. Knowledge helps people rationally organize their activities and solve various problems that arise in the process.
Knowledge in a broad sense is a subjective image of reality, in the form of concepts and ideas.
Classification of knowledge
By nature
· declarative
· procedural
Declarative knowledge contains only an idea of the structure of certain concepts. This knowledge is close to data, facts.
Procedural knowledge has an active nature. They define ideas about the means and ways of obtaining new knowledge and testing knowledge.
By degree of science
Scientific knowledge can be
empirical (based on experience or observation)
· theoretical (based on the analysis of abstract models).
Extra-scientific knowledge can be:
· parascientific - knowledge incompatible with the existing epistemological standard;
· pseudoscientific - deliberately exploiting conjectures and prejudices;
· quasi-scientific - they look for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion;
· anti-scientific - as utopian and deliberately distorting ideas about reality;
· pseudoscientific - represent intellectual activity that speculates on a set of popular theories, for example, stories about ancient astronauts, about Bigfoot, about the monster from Loch Ness;
· everyday-practical - delivering basic information about nature and the surrounding reality;
· personal - depending on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity.
By location
There are: personal (implicit, hidden, not yet formalized) knowledge and formalized (explicit) knowledge;
Tacit knowledge:
· knowledge of people that has not yet been formalized and cannot be transferred to other people.
Knowledge formalized in a certain language:
· knowledge of documents,
· knowledge on CDs,
knowledge of personal computers,
Internet knowledge
knowledge in knowledge bases,
· knowledge in expert systems extracted from the tacit knowledge of human experts.
Direct (intuitive) knowledge is a product of intuition - the ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without justification through evidence.
Everyday knowledge, as a rule, comes down to a statement of facts and their description, while scientific knowledge rises to the level of explaining facts, understanding them in the system of concepts of a given science, and is included in the theory.
Scientific knowledge is characterized by logical validity, evidence, and reproducibility of cognitive results.
Empirical knowledge is obtained as a result of the application of empirical methods of cognition - observation, measurement, experiment. This is knowledge about visible relationships between individual events and facts in the subject area.
Theoretical ideas arise on the basis of generalization of empirical data. At the same time, they influence the enrichment and change of empirical knowledge.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge presupposes the establishment of laws that make it possible to idealize the perception, description and explanation of empirical situations, that is, knowledge of the essence of phenomena. Theoretical laws are more strict and formal in nature compared to empirical ones.
Formalized knowledge is objectified by symbolic means of language. cover the knowledge that we know about, we can write it down, communicate it to others.
Differences between scientific knowledge and everyday experience. The structure of scientific knowledge.
The process of scientific knowledge includes: object, subject, knowledge as a result and research method.
Principles of scientific knowledge.
1. Causality.
In the modern understanding, causality means the connection between individual states of types and forms of matter in the process of its movement and development. The emergence of any objects and systems, as well as changes in their properties over time, have their basis in previous states of matter; these reasons are called causes, and the changes they cause are called effects.
2. Criterion of truth.
Natural scientific truth is verified (proved) only by practice: observations, experiences, experiments, production activities. If a scientific theory is confirmed by practice, then it is true.
3. The relativity of scientific knowledge.
Scientific knowledge (concepts, ideas, concepts, models, theories, conclusions from them, etc.) is always relative and limited.
experience is the everyday everyday experience of people, it is the world of feelings, experiences and activities of a person, the sphere of his ordinary life.
STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Three levels: empirical, theoretical, philosophical foundations. At the empirical level of scientific knowledge, as a result of direct contact with reality, scientists obtain knowledge about certain events, identify the properties of objects or processes that interest them, record relationships, and establish empirical patterns.
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is divided into two parts: fundamental theories, in which the scientist deals with the most abstract ideal objects, and theories that describe a specific area of reality on the basis of fundamental theories.
The level of philosophical premises, philosophical foundations. Certain ideas of a philosophical nature are woven into the fabric of scientific knowledge and embodied in theories. Theory turns from an apparatus for describing and predicting empirical data into knowledge when all its concepts receive an ontological and epistemological interpretation.
84. Determinants and characteristic features of the image of science in the conditions of anthropogenic civilization.
The transition from industrial civilization to post-industrial (anthropogenic) - as a result of the scientific and technological revolution.
In the economic sphere:
* the predominance of the so-called tertiary sphere in the economy - the spheres of science, education, services
* social orientation of the economy: production of consumer goods, development of the service sector
* the main sphere of economic activity is the service sector
* individualization of production and consumption
* increasing the share of small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions by mass production
* elimination of heavy and monotonous physical labor
* the leading role of science, knowledge and information
* development of information technology and technology, implementation of information technology in all areas
* application of resource-saving technologies (replacement of natural raw materials with synthetic raw materials), development of high and unmanned technologies, automation and computerization of production processes
* transformation of information into the main strategic resource of the world economy, integration of national, regional and world economies based on information technology and telecommunications
In the social sphere:
* erasing class differences
* eliminating social polarization and increasing the share of the “middle class”
* the emergence of a new intellectual class of professionals and technical specialists (decisive role in the functioning and development of society)
* change in the structure of professional employment of the population, the predominance of the share of categories of the population associated with the production, distribution, storage, transmission of information
* assigning the level of education and knowledge the role of the main factor determining the social status of the individual, the social stratum and the social structure as a whole
* trend towards de-urbanization (population outflow from big cities to suburbs)
In the political sphere:
* development of legal regulation of public relations
* replacing representative democracy with direct democracy (decision-making by voters via electronic communication)
* opportunities for local municipal self-government are expanding → decentralization of socio-political life
In the spiritual sphere:
* in the center is man, his individuality → anthropogenic civilization
* increasing dependence of everyday life of society on the media, video products, advertising, etc.
* science is a productive sphere
* high level of education of the population, awareness of the problem of functional illiteracy
The main goal is to increase the creative potential of the individual and his information environment.
The components of this environment: mediatization, computerization, intellectualization.
· mediatization: the process of improving the means of collecting, storing and distributing information;
· computerization: the process of improving means of searching and processing information;
· intellectualization: the process of developing the ability to perceive and generate new information, including the use of artificial intelligence.
Problems
1. ensuring free access to national information resources as the most important condition for observing the constitutional right to information;
2.development of information (computer) human psychology;
3.development of social informatization of society (linguistic communication, personal information security, protection against computer crime);
4. information ecology of society in the social and natural environment;
5. development of measures to overcome intellectual emigration;
6. adaptation of people with disabilities to the modern information environment;
7. changing the role of labor in the life of society, the development of new incentives for work activity;
8.preventing the formation of a consumer society, leading to its degradation.
85. Contents of the “ethos of science”. Prerequisites for the emergence and awareness of the need to comply with moral norms in the system of scientific knowledge.
ETHOS OF SCIENCE - a set of moral ideas and moral restrictions associated with understanding the role of science in social life, in the fate of humanity, revealing the specifics of science and the possibilities of scientific knowledge. Some forms of social consciousness, e.g. religion, philosophy, ethics, have a clearly expressed value dimension. This applies to science to a lesser extent, because it does not answer the questions: why? for what purpose? what is the meaning of existence? By its very definition, science is designed to provide an objective picture of the world.
In the 20th century Scientists and philosophers started talking about the fact that science, devoid of moral imperatives, could bring humanity to the brink of disaster. The invention of terrifying weapons of extermination, the destruction of the natural environment, and the creation of a technologically advanced world give rise to distrust of science. She, according to many philosophers, has lost the pathos of searching for the original integrity, the universality of being. She is trying to separate everything, dismember it.
Ethical problems of science arose in connection with the development of physics, biology, in particular genetics, and psychology. Philosophers have noted that science does not yet have a holistic picture of the world.
The content of truth as an epistemological problem.
The Dictionary of Modern Philosophy defines the concept of “truth” as follows: “Truth (Greek aletheia, lit. - “unconcealment”) is knowledge that corresponds to its subject, coinciding with it. Any true knowledge (in science, philosophy, art, etc.) is determined in its content and application by the given conditions of place, time and many other specific circumstances. The opposite of truth and at the same time a necessary moment of the movement of knowledge towards it is error. I believe that special attention should be paid to such an issue as the criteria of truth. Truths are empirical and theoretical. Empirics is experience. From experiments we derive an idea of some particular empirical truths. Most often they are superficial, do not claim the status of law and can be easily refuted in different situations. Theoretical truths are the exact opposite of empirical ones. They are contained in strict formulations of the law, that is, they express not a random and superficial, but a deep connection between things.
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History of psychological knowledge
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Ideas about psychology, which was called the science of the soul, were formulated by ancient philosophers.
The world in the ideas of Democritus was moving matter. Plato understood the soul as a special essence and considered it immortal, and Aristotle wrote his first work - the treatise “On the Soul” and considered the soul to be a form of the body, like an imprint of an object on wax.
His work was for a long time the main guide to psychology, and Aristotle himself was considered its founder. According to Aristotle, the soul is a purposefully working organic system.
In the Middle Ages, Christian views on the soul were established in Europe. A new era in the development of psychological knowledge begins in the 17th century. At this time, there are attempts to comprehend the spiritual world of man from a general philosophical position.
At the end of the 19th century, psychology proceeded from the postulate of Descartes - he claims that the first thing in himself a person discovers is his own consciousness, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the states and contents of consciousness. Psychology begins to treat consciousness as a core subject. This was the second stage in the development of psychology.
According to Descartes, a person from childhood absorbs many misconceptions and accepts various statements and ideas on faith. In the search for truth, the scientist believes, it is necessary to first question everything, including the reliability of information received by the senses.
Note 3
Doubt is a sign of thinking, and hence the famous expression of Descartes - “I think, therefore I exist.”
The development of the psychology of consciousness at the end of the first quarter of the 20th century began to slow down for a number of reasons, and in the second decade of the same century the subject of psychology changed. The behavior of humans and animals takes the place of consciousness.
During the crisis in psychology, influential schools of psychological science are formed - behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis. The foundations of behaviorism were laid by the American scientist D. Watson, Gestalt psychology arose in Germany, and the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Z. Freud laid the foundations of psychoanalysis.
I.M. is considered the domestic founder of psychology. Sechenov, who found out that the scheme of psychological processes is similar to reflexes.
V.M. made a great contribution to the development of Russian psychology. Bekhterev, I.P. Pavlov, G.I. Chelpanov, who created a psychological institute in Russia.
Experimental directions in psychology were developed by V.M. Bekhterev, and I.P. Pavlov studied conditioned reflex connections in the activity of the body.
