A contrast effect is an enhancement or inhibition, relative to normal, of perception, cognition, or related behavior resulting from sequential (immediately preceding) or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater intensity of the same dimension. (Here, by normal perception, cognition or behavior is meant that which would be obtained in the absence of a comparative stimulus - that is, based on all previous experience.)
Examples
- Perception: A neutral gray object appears to be a lighter or darker color than itself when it is compared to an object shown immediately before or simultaneously with a dark gray or light gray color, respectively.
- Cognition: A person appears more or less attractive than she is in herself when she is compared to another person shown immediately before or at the same time as being less or more attractive, respectively.
- behavior: a laboratory rat performs faster or slower in response to a stimulus that indicates the receipt of a certain amount of reward, when such stimulus and reward are immediately preceded or alternated with other stimuli with a smaller or larger amount of reward, respectively.
It's easier to make them cry
That's why it's important for highly sensitive people to put themselves in a situation where they don't feel upset or somehow "wrong" to cry easily, says Zeff. If their friends and family realize that it is simple - that they can easily be made to cry - and support this form of expression, then "easy crying" will not be seen as something shameful.
The second step, and the hardest part, is to avoid overstimulation. You must monitor yourself and see what causes excess stimuli, what your mind is doing, what is happening with your feelings, what signals your body is sending you: your stomach? Do you have negative thoughts? Do you feel anxious or register physical reactions such as sweating or slight twitching in your eyelids or lips? Learning to recognize the warning signs will help us avoid situations that overwhelm us.
In general, work on any aspect that energizes us: mindfulness, yoga, and meditation are good options. One final tip for when you're feeling overwhelmed: try to pause, take a deep breath, step out, breathe, drink something fresh and restore your calm and energy.
Types
Simultaneous contrast was defined by Michel Eugene Chevrel and referred to the effect when the colors of two different objects influence each other. The effect is best seen on objects of complementary colors.
In the image shown in the article, the two inner quadrangles are the same shade of gray, but the top one appears lighter than the bottom because its background is a darker color.
This effect differs from the concept of contrast, which refers to the color difference of an object and its brightness compared to its surroundings or background.
Sequential contrast occurs when the perception of a stimulus currently being looked at is influenced by a previously seen stimulus.
For example, if you first focus for a few seconds on the dots in the centers of the different-colored disks at the top of the above picture, and then look at the same points at the bottom of the picture, the two lower disks will appear different colors for several moments, although they are the same color.
One type of contrast, including both time and place, is called metacontrast and paracontrast. When one half of the disk is brightly illuminated for 10 milliseconds, it is at its brightest. If the other half is shown at the same time (but 20-50 milliseconds later), mutual suppression occurs: the left side is obscured by the right side (metacontrast), and the center may disappear altogether. At the same time, given the first stimulus, the right side is also slightly darkened (paracontrast).
Basic patterns of sensations
Psychophysiological mechanisms of sensations Read more: Ideas about the systemic nature of the interaction of brain structures in providing sensations
1.2 Basic patterns of sensations
The main patterns of sensation include sensitivity thresholds, adaptation, interaction, contrast and synesthesia.
Let us describe each concept in more detail.
Sensitivity thresholds. Not every stimulus strength can cause sensations. So, for example, the touch of a fluff on the body cannot be felt. And under the influence of a very strong stimulus, a moment may come when sensations cease to arise altogether. We cannot hear sounds with a frequency higher than 20 thousand hertz. And a super-strong stimulus causes pain instead of this type of sensation. Consequently, sensations arise when exposed to a stimulus of a certain intensity. The psychological characteristic of the relationship between the intensity of sensation and the strength of stimuli is expressed by the concept of the threshold of sensations, or the threshold of sensitivity.
In psychophysiology, two types of thresholds are distinguished: the threshold of absolute sensitivity and the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination.
That lowest stimulus strength at which a barely noticeable sensation first occurs is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. And that greatest strength of stimulus, at which a sensation of this type still exists, is called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity [5, p.97].
Thresholds limit the zone of sensitivity of the analyzer to a given type of stimulus. For example, of all electromagnetic oscillations, the eye is capable of reflecting waves with a length from 390 (violet) to 780 (red) millimicrons; vibrations, distinguished by the ear as sound, occupy the region from 20 to 20 thousand hertz. Currently, the characteristics of the upper and lower thresholds of all types of sensitivity have been studied in detail.
The effect on the nervous system of stimuli that do not reach the threshold value does not remain unnoticed. These stimuli change sensory thresholds and can subconsciously adjust movements and actions.
To measure absolute sensitivity thresholds, devices with scales of continuous change in stimulus strength have been created. Having started influencing the analyzer with a subthreshold stimulus, the experimenter gradually increases the strength of the stimulus until the subject says that he has a sensation. In accordance with the indicators of the subject, the physical strength of the stimulus is recorded. The measurement is made several times. Then the conditions of the experiment change: the strength of the stimulus causing the sensation decreases until the subject says that the sensation has disappeared. Having made several such measurements, the experimenter calculates the arithmetic mean of all values, which is considered the threshold strength of the stimulus [16, p. 10].
As we said above, in addition to strength, the stimulus is characterized by the duration of the impact, i.e., the period of time during which it acts on the analyzer. It is known that there is a relationship between the strength of the stimulus and the duration of its impact necessary to achieve the threshold value. The weaker the stimulus, the longer it takes for it to cause sensation. With prolonged exposure (more than a second), the occurrence of sensations begins to depend only on the strength of the stimulus.
There is an inverse relationship between sensitivity (threshold) and the strength of the stimulus: the greater the force needed to produce a sensation, the lower a person’s sensitivity. Sensitivity thresholds are individual for each person. This psychological pattern of sensations should be provided for by the teacher, especially in the elementary grades. Because sometimes there are children with reduced auditory and visual sensitivity. In order for them to see and hear clearly, it is necessary to create conditions for the best distinction between the teacher’s speech and the notes on the board.
Thresholds of absolute sensitivity do not remain unchanged throughout a person’s life: sensitivity in children develops, reaching the highest level by adolescence.
In addition to thresholds of absolute sensitivity, sensations are also characterized by thresholds of sensitivity to discrimination. That smallest increase in the strength of the current stimulus at which a barely noticeable difference in the strength or quality of sensations occurs is called the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination [12, p. 213].
In life, we constantly notice changes in illumination, an increase or decrease in sound intensity. This is a manifestation of the threshold of discrimination. Let me give you an example. If you ask two or three people to divide a line about a meter long in half. It turns out that each of the subjects will plot his own midpoint. Let's measure with a millimeter ruler who divided more accurately - this subject will have better sensitivity to discrimination.
An experimental study of sensitivity to discrimination made it possible to formulate the following law, which is valid for stimuli of average strength, i.e., not approaching the lower or upper thresholds of absolute sensitivity: the ratio of the additional strength of the stimulus to the main one is a constant value for a given type of sensitivity [2, p. 315] . Thus, in the sensation of pressure (tactile sensitivity), this increase is equal to 1/30 of the weight of the original stimulus. This means that you need to add 3.4 g to 100 g to feel a change in pressure, and 34 g to 1 kg. For auditory sensations, this constant is equal to 1/10, for visual sensations - 1/100.
Sensitivity to distinction, as B. G. Ananyev notes, is the source of such a complex thought process as comparison. In the development of distinctive sensitivity, an exceptional role belongs to the word. The word highlights and consolidates subtle differences in sensations, draws a person’s attention to the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the properties of the reflected object and leads to the development of observation. Therefore, improving children's distinctive sensitivity is inextricably linked with the development of speech during the learning process.
The next pattern we will focus on is adaptation. Adaptation is an adaptation of sensitivity to a constant stimulus, manifested in a decrease or increase in thresholds [4, p. 177]. In life, the phenomenon of adaptation is well known to everyone. So in the first minute, when a person enters the river, the water seems cold to him. Then the feeling of cold disappears and the water seems quite warm. This is observed in all types of sensitivity, except pain.
The degree of adaptation of different analyzer systems is not the same: high adaptability is noted in olfactory, tactile (we do not notice the pressure of clothing on the body), light, much less - in auditory, cold. We encounter minor adaptations in pain sensations. Pain signals the destruction of an organ, and it is clear that adaptation to pain can lead to the death of the organism.
The visual analyzer distinguishes between dark and light adaptation.
The course of dark adaptation has been studied in detail. When a person finds himself in a darkened room, at first he sees nothing, but after 3-5 minutes he begins to clearly distinguish the light penetrating there. Staying in absolute darkness increases sensitivity to light by about 200 thousand times over 40 minutes. Various reasons influence the increase in sensitivity: changes occur in the receptor, the opening of the pupil increases, the work of the rod apparatus increases, but mainly sensitivity increases due to the conditioned reflex work of the central mechanisms of the analyzer. If dark adaptation is associated with an increase in sensitivity, then light adaptation is associated with a decrease in light sensitivity.
Let us pay special attention to the interaction of sensations.
The interaction of sensations is a change in the sensitivity of one analyzing system under the influence of the activities of another analyzing system. The change in sensitivity is explained by cortical connections between analyzers, largely by the law of simultaneous induction [10, p. 195].
The general pattern of interaction between sensations is as follows: weak stimuli in one analyzer system increase sensitivity, and in another they decrease it. For example, weak taste sensations (sour) increase visual sensitivity, and a mutual influence is noted between sound and visual sensations. Increasing sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers, as well as systematic exercises, is called sensitization [12, p. 214].
For example, weak taste sensations increase visual sensitivity. This is explained by the interconnection of these analyzers and their systematic operation.
Sensitization, an aggravation of sensitivity, can be caused not only by the interaction of sensations, but also by physiological factors, the introduction of certain substances into the body. For example, vitamin A is essential for increasing visual sensitivity.
Sensitivity increases if a person expects one or another weak stimulus, when he is faced with a special task of distinguishing between stimuli. The sensitivity of the individual is improved as a result of the exercise. Thus, tasters, by specially exercising their taste and olfactory sensitivity, distinguish between various types of wines and teas and can even determine when and where the product was made.
In people deprived of any type of sensitivity, compensation (compensation) for this deficiency is carried out by increasing the sensitivity of other analyzers (for example, increasing auditory and olfactory sensitivity in the blind).
The interaction of sensations in some cases leads to sensitization, to an increase in sensitivity, and in other cases to its decrease, i.e. to desensitization. Strong excitation of some analyzers always reduces the sensitivity of other analyzers. Thus, increased noise levels in “loud workshops” reduce visual sensitivity.
One of the manifestations of the interaction of sensations is the contrast of sensations. The contrast of sensations is an increase in sensitivity to one properties under the influence of other, opposite properties of reality [5, p.99]. We are all very familiar with the contrast of sensations. For example, the same gray figure appears dark on a white background, but light on a black background.
Next, let's move on to consider such a phenomenon as synesthesia. Synesthesia is the excitation of sensations of one modality by sensations of another modality [3, 224]. Note that a feature of sensations is the monomodality of the image. However, the interaction of sensations that occurs in the central nuclei of the analyzer leads to the fact that a person under pressure, for example, from sounds, can experience color sensations; color can cause a feeling of cold. This mutual influence is called synesthesia. Synesthesia can be considered as a special case of the interaction of sensations, which is expressed not in a change in the level of sensitivity, but in the fact that the impact of sensations of a given modality is enhanced through the stimulation of sensations of other modalities. Synesthesia enhances the sensual tone of sensations. The phenomenon of synesthesia extends to all modalities. This is expressed in stable phrases: velvet voice, dark sound, cold color, etc. Manifestations of synesthesia vary from person to person. There are people with a very strong ability for synesthesia and people who have almost no such ability.
The considered patterns reveal the high dynamism of sensations, their dependence on the strength of the stimulus, on the functional state of the analyzing system caused by the beginning or termination of the stimulus, as well as the result of the simultaneous influence of several stimuli on one analyzer or adjacent analyzers.
Thus, it can be noted that the patterns of sensations determine the conditions under which a stimulus (irritation) reaches consciousness. Thus, biologically important stimuli affect the brain at reduced thresholds and increased sensitivity, and stimuli that have lost biological significance act at higher thresholds.
Chapter 2. Modern concepts about the physiological mechanisms underlying sensations
Psychophysiological mechanisms of sensations Read more: Ideas about the systemic nature of the interaction of brain structures in providing sensations
Information about the work “Psychophysiological mechanisms of sensations”
Section: Psychology Number of characters with spaces: 48282 Number of tables: 1 Number of images: 2
Similar works
Psychophysiological mechanisms of memory
40099
0
1
… . What is memory? Humanity has been searching for an answer to this question since ancient times. There are several theories of memory mechanisms. All of them have their supporters and opponents, so we will briefly present the characteristics of the physical, psychological, psychophysiological and biochemical theories. — Physiologists say that the process of storing information is associated with the formation of nerve connections (...
Psychophysiological mechanism of stress
32437
0
0
... a link” between consciousness and body. In this case, a stressor that is physical in nature, as well as a psychological stressor, can influence cognitive processes by triggering the same psychophysiological mechanisms, regardless of the nature of the stressor. At the same time, there is evidence that information about stressors perceived by vision goes directly to the hypothalamus through a special visual ...
Physiological mechanisms of mental processes and states
154115
0
0
... emission tomography (EET); positron emission tomography (PET). This entire set of methods allows for non-invasive study of the structure and functions of the brain. Psychophysiological study of mental processes and states Principles of information coding in the nervous system Today we can talk about several principles of coding in neural networks. Some of them are quite simple and...
Physiological mechanisms of cognitive processes
34392
0
0
... based on total indicators of brain activity. As a result, the content of the subject of psychophysiology as an independent scientific direction was officially recorded as the study of the physiological mechanisms of mental processes and states. But the most widespread are psychophysiological studies involving methods of recording neural activity not only in animals, but also...
Areas of existence
The 17th century philosopher John Locke noted the effect of contrast when he observed that warm water appears hot or cold depending on whether the hand that touches it was in cold or hot water. In the early 20th century, Wilhelm Wundt identified contrast as a fundamental principle of perception, and since then the existence of the effect has been confirmed in various fields. Contrast effects affect not only visual qualities such as color or brightness, but also other types of perception, such as the perception of weight, music, etc.
In one experiment, when people were asked to think of the name "Hitler" while rating other people, they rated those people as friendlier. A song or musical composition can be perceived as good or bad depending on whether the music listened to before it was unpleasant or pleasant.
For the effect to work, the objects being compared must be similar to each other (of the same type): a journalist may appear shorter than usual when interviewing a tall basketball player, but not when compared to a tall building.
Their feelings are deeper
One of the hallmarks of highly sensitive people is the ability to experience deeper feelings than their less sensitive peers. “They like to perceive things on a deep level,” Ted Zeff, Ph.D., author of “The Survival Guide for Highly Sensitive People” and other books about highly sensitive people, tells HuffPost. “They are very intuitive and can go a lot further to figure things out.”
Openness to Reception, Responsibility, Extraversion, Warmth or Kindness, and Stability are five characteristics that are assessed in this model and in a large number of clinical analytic and screening instruments that have been developed subsequently.
Sensitivity and consequences not including within personality models
But what happens if you can add another new feature? We're talking about sensitivity. In adulthood, these traits that were observed in childhood acquire maximum expression. They are creative people who are attracted to art and knowledge, both on an intellectual level and the almost unlimited ability to learn without even realizing it, and also on a personal level as they tend to be people with great knowledge in their own right and very wealthy inner world, which sometimes make them seem introverted, although this does not necessarily have to be the case.
For highly sensitive people, the effects of criticism are greatly enhanced.
Highly sensitive people have a reaction to criticism that is more intense the less sensitive the person is. As a result, they may use certain tactics to avoid criticism, including flattering (so that no one will criticize them), criticizing themselves first, and avoiding sources of criticism, Aron says.
People may say something negative [and] a non-HSP (highly sensitive person) may say, “Never mind,” and not respond, Zeff says. But the OCCH will feel it very deeply.
