Topic 39. Psychology of attention: phenomenology, patterns of functioning, ways of development. (top)

Every second a person receives a lot of information about the world around him through the senses, sounds, visual perception, tactile sensations, taste, smell.

And if all this fully reached consciousness , the memory would be overloaded in the shortest possible time.

However, this process of perception is not chaotic , from everything that we feel, only the most important is selected, the rest passes by our consciousness and does not distract us. And this happens thanks to our attention, which plays the role of a sorter. What is attention in psychology?

What are the causes of attention deficit disorder in adults or children? Find out about this from our article.

Types and types: classification in table

Attention: what is it like?

Involuntary attention, in turn, is divided into the following types:

1. Forced . It is characterized by being very difficult to control and triggered by intense stimuli. For example, a bright flash of light.
2. Involuntary . This is attention that is directed to objects related to the satisfaction of any needs. For example, involuntarily paying attention to the grocery store if a person is hungry.
3. Habitual . It concerns interests and human activities. For example, when walking through an unfamiliar city, a builder will pay attention to the architecture, and a gardener will pay attention to the landscaping of the streets.

Voluntary attention is divided, due to its characteristics, into the following:

1. Volitional . Occurs when concentration on directed activity is interrupted by any stimuli. For example, a person concentrates on reading a book in a noisy room.
2. Expectant . Waiting for some object to appear, for example, a phone call or a message during correspondence.
3. Spontaneous . Maintaining attention on an object that aroused involuntary interest. For example, a driver pays and maintains attention to an engine sound that is uncharacteristic of normal operation while driving a car.

Concept and types of attention in psychology

Attention is a person’s ability to selectively direct perception to one or another object, while focusing thoughts, vision and hearing.

Attention can also be considered as a special property of the body that allows you to skip and perceive information of high significance, and allows you to react only to what is of interest.

Properties:

• stability (the ability to concentrate on one thing for a long time);
• switchability (the ability to quickly move from one object to another, in the process managing to achieve maximum concentration on each of them);
• distractibility (the degree of susceptibility to stimuli that are not within the scope of the task at hand);
• volume of attention (number of simultaneously perceived objects/stimuli/sources of information);
• concentration (focus on an object);
• distribution (simultaneous performance of several types of activities that do not involve switching attention).

There are three types of attention:

1. Involuntary. This is the simplest, most basic type, which is inherent in every person at the genetic level. It is also called forced or passive. Involuntary attention has a biological origin and is characteristic even of animals.
2. Arbitrary .
   This type is associated with the will of a person, as it is manageable and controlled. Voluntary attention is subordinated to conscious goals, and therefore stands out among other types. It has a social origin.
3. Post-voluntary . A type of attention that is inherently a transition from voluntary attention to involuntary attention.

Properties

Properties of attention in psychology:

1. Sustainability . The ability to concentrate on an object for some time. This property depends on the personal qualities of a person, his volitional capabilities, as well as motivation. Stability of attention is maintained provided that any new properties are discovered in the observed object.
2. Focus . Concentrating attention on an object while ignoring other stimuli.
3. Volume . Represents the number of objects that are in the focus of consciousness. The average attention span of people is 5 ±.2 objects.
4. Switching .
   The transition from focusing attention on one object to another. For example, the transition from physics homework to biology. Switching attention is a volitional process; it should not be confused with involuntary distraction, for example, to a loud sound.
5. Selectivity of attention . The property of being able to select important stimuli and ignore unimportant ones. Selective attention, for example, can be illustrated by a conversation with one person in a large company, when only the speech of the interlocutor is perceived, but the content of the conversation of other people is completely ignored.
6. Distribution . Distribution and direction of attention to several objects simultaneously. An example of focus of attention is driving a car, when the driver concentrates on visual control of the situation on the road and control of the vehicle.

What is sustained attention?

Sustainability of attention is a property that is determined by the ability to maintain concentration on an object or type of activity for a long period of time. We can say that this is a characteristic that determines the duration of concentration. It is worth noting that the stability of attention cannot be determined in relation to any one object. A person can switch between objects or activities, however, the overall direction and meaning must remain constant. Thus, if a person is engaged in an activity (or several types of activities) over a certain period of time to achieve a specific goal, then one can judge the stability of his attention. This category is characterized by a number of requirements, the main thing being the diversity of actions and impressions that they bring. If the nature of the irritation remains unchanged, then in that part of the brain responsible for this or that activity, inhibition is observed, and, as a result, attention begins to dissipate. If the nature and conditions of activity constantly vary, then the concentration will be long-lasting.

It is worth noting that concentration and switching of attention can alternate, depending on internal and external conditions. Even if an individual is in a state of highest concentration, due to internal brain processes, some fluctuations may occur. If we talk about external stimuli, they cannot always lead to a distraction of attention (this largely depends on their intensity).

Volume

The volume of attention characterizes the number of objects on which attention is concentrated.

The attention span adult is 3-7 objects; in a child it is slightly lower, 2-5 objects.

A person who has a large amount of attention will notice more phenomena and any factors, therefore, he will better assess this or that situation. This characteristic also strongly depends on the awareness of the connection between the observed objects and knowledge about them .

An example would be a doctor diagnosing a disease when suspicions of a particular disease arise during an external examination, while a person without medical education may not notice these symptoms.

Attention span is taken into account in many areas of human activity .

For example, ideally, an advertising sign should not contain more than 5 words, since the average person will not be able to assess at one glance all the advantages of a particular product with a larger number of information objects on it.

Properties of attention

Concentration of attention

Concentration of attention (concentration) - highlighting an object with the consciousness and directing attention to it. The role of concentrated attention may vary. On the one hand, it is necessary for a more complete and in-depth study of a particular object, and on the other hand, excessive concentration of attention leads to a sharp narrowing of the field of attention, which creates difficulties in the perception of other important objects.

Sustainability of attention

Sustainability of attention is the length of time during which a person can maintain his attention on an object. It is especially needed in conditions of monotonous and monotonous work, when complex but similar actions are performed for a long time.

Attention intensity

Experiments show that intense forty minutes of attention can be maintained voluntarily without noticeable weakening or involuntary switching, although this is quite tiring. In the future, the intensity of attention decreases the faster the less trained the person and the less stable his attention.

Concentration and attention span

Of particular importance for achieving success in any activity is concentration and stability of attention, which characterize the depth, duration and intensity of a person’s mental activity. It is concentration and stability that distinguish people who are passionate about their work and who know how to disconnect from numerous side irritants for the sake of the main thing.

Even with very stable and concentrated attention, there are always short-term involuntary changes in the degree of its intensity and tension. These are fluctuations in attention.

How to force yourself to carefully read the same text several times? This can be achieved by setting new tasks before each re-reading. Say to yourself: “I’m reading this for the first time for general information, now I’ll read it to understand the logic of the evidence that the author gives, then it’s important to understand how this material is connected to the previous one,” etc. That is. we must learn to look even at familiar phenomena from a new point of view.

Attention span

The scope of attention is the number of objects that a person can strictly simultaneously be aware of during perception in connection with any one task. You can cover 3-7 objects at the same time, although the objects are different. They are not equally covered by attention. Much depends on a person’s experience and professional training, which makes it possible to form a volume of attention that combines several objects into one, more complex one.

For some professions, high intensity and a large amount of attention are required almost all the time of work, and motor skills are much less important. These professions belong to the so-called observational psychology professions. These are dispatchers, equipment operators, etc.

High intensity of concentrated attention for other groups of professions is needed only at certain moments of work.

Distribution of attention

Distribution is the ability to perform multiple activities simultaneously. It depends on individual characteristics and professional skills. No one can do two things at the same time without knowing how to do each separately.

Switching attention

A person’s ability to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time allows them to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention.

Let us recall, for example, the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could simultaneously do seven unrelated things. Napoleon could also simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries.

But as life practice shows, a person is capable of performing only one type of conscious mental activity, and the subjective feeling of simultaneously performing several is due to a rapid sequential switching from one to another.

It was also shown by W. Wundt that a person cannot concentrate on two simultaneously presented stimuli. However, sometimes a person is actually able to perform two types of activities simultaneously. In fact, in such cases, one of the activities performed should be completely automated and not require attention. If this condition is not met, combining activities is impossible.

Distribution and switching of attention

A large group of professions associated with the control of moving mechanisms (cars, cranes, electric locomotives...) is called driving in labor psychology. For them, such qualities of attention as wide distribution and rapid switching are important, which determine the success of controlling mechanisms under conditions of multifaceted influence in the external world.

The physiological mechanism of attention distribution is associated with the fact that habitual actions, which do not cause difficulties due to already developed strong systems of temporary connections, can be controlled by areas of the cortex located outside the focus of optimal excitation.

For example, a trainee driver cannot simultaneously distribute his attention between the clutch pedal and brake and at the same time listen to the instructor’s instructions and observe the situation. In the future, by automating individual movements, he will learn to distribute his attention. Thanks to testing using the Attention package tests, the time for learning to automate human actions will be reduced.

The dynamics of any work leads to the need to constantly change the objects to which a person pays attention. This is expressed in a shift of attention.

Switching attention

Switching is a conscious transfer of attention from one object to another. Involuntary shifting of attention is called distraction.

Physiologically, voluntary switching of attention is explained by the movement of an area with optimal excitability along the cerebral cortex. High mobility of nervous processes as an individual trait of temperament allows you to easily and quickly move from one object to another. In such cases they talk about moving, flexible attention.

If a person has insufficient mobility of nerve fibers, then this transition occurs with effort, difficulty and slowly. This means that a person has inert attention. When a person has very poor switching ability, it’s sticky attention. Sometimes a person’s poor switching ability is due to poor preparation for work.

Features: briefly

What are the features of attention as a mental and cognitive process and phenomenon, as the highest mental function?

All mental processes are divided into 3 classes: properties, states and processes.

Attention refers to such mental phenomena as cognitive processes. Its most important feature is focus and selectivity .

The difference between attention and other cognitive processes (memory, perception, thinking) is that it does not have its own content. It manifests itself within these processes, characterizes their dynamics, regulating and controlling human activity.

Basic psychological concepts on the topic Attention

Dominant is a temporarily dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex. The dominant nerve center is characterized by the ability to accumulate excitations and inhibit the work of other nerve centers. According to A.A. Ukhtomsky, D. is the physiological basis of attention.

Induction (in neurophysiology) is a law of the physiology of the nervous system, according to which a nervous process or state of one sign causes an opposite nervous process or state in other parts of the nervous system (simultaneous and.) or in the same area after the termination of its action (sequential and.). They talk about positive and... (inhibition induces excitation) and negative and. (excitation induces inhibition).

concentration - the degree of concentration on an object;

volume - the number of objects that can be captured by attention at the same time;

switching is an intentional transfer of attention from one object to another. another (mindfulness distinguishes switching from distraction);

distribution - the ability to hold several objects in the sphere of attention at the same time;

stability - the duration of focusing attention on an object.

A person is exposed to a huge number of stimuli simultaneously. However, only those of them that are the most significant reach consciousness. The selective, directed nature of human mental activity is the essence of attention.

Unlike cognitive processes, attention does not have its own special content. It manifests itself as if inside mental processes and is inseparable from them, characterizing the dynamics of their course. Some researchers reduce attention to the selective activity of the individual. This is the point of view of the attitude theory developed by the school of D. I. Uznadze .

Human attention is social in nature. It is generated by labor activity and is one of the main psychological characteristics of the labor process.

Attention is manifested in external signs, such as facial expressions, various movements, etc.

According to the views of I.M. Sechenov , human attention is reflexive in nature. Developing this position, I. P. Pavlov hypothesized that attention is associated with the emergence of foci of optimal excitation as a result of a special orientation reflex.

An important contribution to the discovery of the physiological mechanisms of attention was made by A. A. Ukhtomsky . According to his idea, excitation is distributed unevenly throughout the cerebral cortex and can create foci of optimal excitation in it, which acquire a dominant character.

The point of view of I. P. Pavlov and A. A. Ukhtomsky has now received a number of confirmations in experiments with the registration of biocurrents in the brain of animals and humans. Modern neurophysiological studies have confirmed the leading role of cortical mechanisms in the regulation of attention. It has been established that attention is possible only on the basis of general wakefulness of the cerebral cortex and an increase in the activity of its activity. Some scientists emphasize the particularly important role of the frontal areas of the brain in the selection of information. Currently, special neurons have been discovered in the brain, called “attention neurons.” An important role in the regulation of attention belongs to a cluster of nerve cells located in the stem part of the brain and called the reticular formation. It is assumed that the reticular formation is a complex of several systems, one of which ensures the activation of the orientation reflex, others - the protective one, and still others - the food one.

Currently, voluntary attention is understood as activity that is aimed at controlling one’s behavior and maintaining the stability of selective activity.

It would be a mistake to reduce involuntary attention exclusively to a person’s indicative reaction. It is also associated with cognitive activity, with communication and is largely determined by needs.

According to the point of view of P. Ya. Galperin, involuntary attention, like voluntary attention, is also control, but control over what in the subject itself catches the eye.

Research by B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn showed that the quality of attention depends on the properties of the human nervous system. It was found that for people with a weak nervous system, additional stimuli interfere with concentration, and for people with a strong nervous system, they even increase their concentration.

Attention in different people and in the same person, but at different times and under different conditions, differs in some features or properties.

Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas on psychology : Information method, manual for the course “Human Psychology”. - M.: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 2001. - 276 p. pp. 110-112.

Patterns

Attention is subject to the following laws:

1. Law of apperception. According to this law, attention is not a constant value, it changes over time, the level of its concentration is unstable.
   It depends on the physical well-being and psychological state of a person, on the emotional background, on knowledge of the object and its relationship with the environment.

   When a person feels unwell, for example, feels a headache, he will be much less attentive to the external environment, concentrating more on internal sensations, than when he is feeling well.

2. Law of installation . Characterizes a person’s adaptability to the best response or perception of any situation. Attitude is readiness for some action. For example, a person crossing a tense section of a highway with many moving cars strives to control his position as much as possible, his vision and hearing are strained, and he himself is ready to suddenly react to an unusual situation. However, this law stipulates not only sudden reactions, it can also be a strong-willed concentration of attention when carrying out any professional activity. For example, a mathematician with work experience can maintain concentration much longer when solving a complex problem than, for example, a schoolchild.
3. Law of properties of attention . It is determined by the basic properties of attention listed above, distribution, selectivity, volume and stability. An example would be a change of activity, a person needs to wait some time to achieve a certain concentration of attention when moving from physical activity to mental activity.

Attention management

Attention management is the control over distractions that prevent you from concentrating on your main activity.

Requires recognition of the moments of the appearance of such stimuli, as well as the ability to purposefully focus attention as much as possible when performing any specific tasks.

The ability to manage one’s attention well allows a person to greatly increase the productivity of his work. The development of this ability leads to a qualitative change in the results of all his activities .

Stages of development

In the process of growing up, concentration undergoes modifications for the better, and by the age of sixteen or seventeen it is fully formed.

1. Up to 1.5 months. The baby reacts only to bright stimuli, this is an indicator that everything is fine with the central nervous system.
2. Up to 7 months. The child begins to focus on things such as the sound of a voice, recognizing intonation or actions.
3. Up to 1.5 years. Primary awareness is already appearing, that is, consciously attracting adults by making sounds or turning the head.
4. Up to 4. Free listening, speaking. The child tries to understand the speakers and enter into dialogue with them. Actions and games become more conscious, and there is a desire to complete something to the end—to assemble a puzzle.
5. Up to 6 years old. It is easier for a baby to control his own attention using voice commands - self-hypnosis. The boundaries of the world increase, as does the size of stimuli and conscious reactions.
6. Up to 13. The assimilation of norms is actively taking place - the daily routine, school breaks and lessons. The child learns to reorganize and concentrate. To do this, he uses inner speech.
7. Up to 17. Conscious attentiveness already predominates over voluntary, but only upon reaching 16-18 years old can we talk about full formation.

Face-to-face consultation

What are the features and advantages of face-to-face consultation?

Find out more

Skype consultation

What are the features and benefits of Skype consultations?

Find out more

Distribution

Distribution of attention is a person’s ability to concentrate on several objects at the same time.

In other words, it is the ability to simultaneously perform several different tasks.

A striking example of a person with an outstanding ability to distribute attention is Julius Caesar . It is alleged that he could simultaneously dictate the contents of a letter to several clerks, while he himself read a completely different text.

The ability to distribute attention can be slightly increased using the following methods:

1. When performing work that requires increased attention, it is advisable to be distracted every 15-20 minutes and deliberately reduce the level of concentration and give yourself a short rest.
2. At different times of the day a person has a different ability to concentrate.
   It is usually higher in the hours after waking up, but it also depends on the individual characteristics of the person.
3. Combining actions that are close in meaning leads to increased concentration. For example, a child who learns a poem and gestures accordingly will remember it faster, since both physical and mental activity will be involved in the process of controlling attention.
4. Automaticity of actions. An experienced driver does not think about the process of changing gears while driving a car, which helps him concentrate more on the situation on the road, while a beginner will be more likely to be distracted by this action.

Types of attention and their comparative characteristics

When organizing the attention of students, the teacher must think through not only how to attract attention to a given lesson, but also how to form strong-willed personality traits that make it easier to manage attention.
Post-voluntary attention is characterized by long-term high concentration; the most intense and fruitful mental activity and high productivity of all types of labor are reasonably associated with it.

External and internal attention. Attention can manifest itself in sensory, mnemonic, mental and motor processes. Therefore, depending on the object of concentration (perceived objects, memory representations, thoughts of movement), the following forms of attention are distinguished: sensory (perceptual), intellectual and motor.

Depending on whether the object is in the external world, or whether it is sensations, thoughts, or experiences of the individual, external, or perceptual, or internal attention is distinguished. The distinction between perceptual and internal attention is important in the management of attention and allows us to understand some personality traits. An exploratory attitude towards the world cannot be formed without the development of perceptual attention.

Internal and external attention inhibit each other; It is difficult to be simultaneously focused on external and internal phenomena. Often a person, thinking, closes his eyes. In a state of thoughtfulness, turning to the past, mental experiences, a person’s gaze disappears, the axes of the eyes diverge, and the perception of the surrounding world seems to be in a fog.

Collective, group, individual attention.

Depending on the forms of educational activities organized by the teacher, collective, group and individual attention can be distinguished.

Collective attention is the concentration of all students on one subject. Such an object is most often the teacher’s story and the students’ answers. Having a focused class group also helps focus those who are not used to the effort of organizing attention.

Group attention - focusing attention in groups while working in a team. Group attention has to be organized when conducting laboratory work, mutual testing, and discussing any facts in groups. To organize attention, it is necessary to clearly plan the execution of tasks in stages, and transition to collective attention at individual stages.

Individual attention - focusing a person's attention on his task. It occurs when reading independently, solving problems, and completing tests. It is difficult for a teacher to switch from individual attention to collective attention, since not all students cope with the task at the same time, and many do not switch their attention at the beginning of collective work. In this case, you should give a small additional task to students who finished their work earlier than others. Students who do not complete the assignment are advised to finish it later.

Properties of attention. Basic methods for studying attention. Attention is characterized by the following properties: volume, distribution, concentration, stability and switching.

The volume of attention is measured by the number of objects that can be covered by attention in a very limited period of time. It has been established that when perceiving many simple objects in a time interval of 0.07–0.1 seconds, the attention span of an adult is on average 5–7 elements. The amount of attention depends on the characteristics of perceived objects. The attention span of younger schoolchildren is very limited. It expands with age. The main condition for expanding the volume is the formation of the skills to group, systematize, and combine the perceived material according to its meaning.

Distribution of attention is a property associated with the possibility of simultaneously successfully performing (combining) two or more different types of activities. (several actions).

A high level of attention distribution is one of the prerequisites for the success of many modern types of work. The distribution of attention in teaching activities is important. A teacher explaining material in a lesson must monitor the content of his speech, control the logic, sequence of presentation and, at the same time, observe how students perceive the material. The ability to distribute attention in teaching activities is largely determined by the professional training of the teacher, good knowledge of the subject being taught, the perfection of the lesson plan, etc.

The ability to distribute attention depends on a number of conditions. The more complex the combined activities or tasks to be solved, the more difficult it is to distribute attention while simultaneously performing motor and mental activities.

The ability to distribute attention is formed in the process of mastering an activity; it can be developed through exercise and accumulation of relevant skills.

A valuable quality of attention is the degree of concentration on an object - concentration, or intensity, attention.

Concentration of attention is expressed in the fact that attention is absorbed by one object. An indicator of intensity is “noise immunity”, the inability to distract attention from the subject of activity by extraneous stimuli.

Concentration is closely related to attention span and distribution. A state of deep concentration of attention is a necessary prerequisite for accurate, successful performance of activities.

The stability of attention is manifested in the duration of its concentration on an object. This property depends on a number of reasons: on the strength of nervous processes, on the nature of the activity, on the relationship to the task, on established habits.

The opposite property of stability is distraction, which is expressed in fluctuations of attention. Frequent fluctuations of attention in short periods of time (1 - 5 seconds) do not have a noticeable effect on its stability when performing complex and interesting activities.

Sustained attention is physiologically associated with a prolonged concentration of excitation in one group of nerve cells. The stability of attention, other things being equal, reveals the general type of human nervous activity.

Switching attention is the deliberate transfer of attention from one object to another. The physiological picture of switching is inhibition of the existing optimal focus of excitability and the formation of a new one. This allows us to conclude that switching attention depends on the mobility of nervous processes - on the speed of change of excitation and inhibition. Switching attention depends on the nature of the objects. The habit of switching attention is of great importance. It greatly facilitates the transfer of interest in the subject and awareness of its significance for a person. Attention switches faster and easier from an object of activity that is less important for the individual to a personally more significant one.

Development of attention. Attention, like all other mental processes, has lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, and the latter by voluntary attention. Direct attention is also a lower form of its development than indirect attention.

Voluntary attention arises when the people around the child begin to direct the child’s attention, guide his attention, and give into the child’s hands those means with the help of which he subsequently masters his own attention. With age, the child’s attention improves, but the development of external indirect attention proceeds much faster than its development as a whole. At the same time, at school age a turning point occurs in development, which is characterized by the fact that initially external mediocre attention gradually turns into internally mediocre attention, and takes the main place among all its types.

Attention in the educational process. When organizing the educational process at school, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of all types of attention. We must remember that not everything in learning can be entertaining, but there are certainly boring things, and there should be. It is necessary to teach the child to do not only what interests him, but also what does not occupy him. An important condition for developing a student’s attention is the correct and clear organization of the entire educational process. The attention of students in a lesson is determined by the peculiarities of its structure and depends both on the content of the material being studied and on the ways in which it is presented by the teacher. A lively, bright, dynamic and at the same time consistent, logically coherent presentation of material that is rich in content and accessible to assimilation is an important condition for ensuring the attentiveness of schoolchildren in the lesson. Systematic education of attention is carried out as the purposeful formation of automated actions of mental control.

An important condition for the successful implementation of the educational process is taking into account both the age and individual characteristics of the attention of schoolchildren. In pedagogical practice, it is important to take into account individual abilities of external manifestation of attention. By external signs - a specific posture, facial expression and gaze, one can determine the direction of attention and the degree of its concentration. If, for example, the student’s gaze is fixed on the teacher, the body is slightly directed forward, the forehead is slightly wrinkled, and the lips are compressed, we can assume that he is attentive (A.V. Petrovsky, 1986). However, external indicators may not correspond to the actual focus. With this apparent attentiveness, the student can either consciously, taking the pose of an attentive listener, engage in extraneous matters, or involuntarily focus on his own thoughts and memories. The so-called apparent inattention can manifest itself both in the student’s excessive mobility and in passivity, external indifference to the lesson. However, in both cases the student can be attentive enough to actually participate in the class. In this case, a student, for example, can freely answer the teacher’s question, although it seemed that he was distracted.

The concept of sensation and perception

Sensation is a reflection of the individual properties of objects during their direct impact on the senses.

Sensations are not the only form of reflection of the world. Higher forms of sensory reflection cannot be reduced to a sum or combination of sensations. Each of the forms of reflection has a qualitative originality, but without sensations as the original form of reflection. The existence of any kind of cognitive activity is impossible. Without sensations, human psychological activity is impossible. The constant “transformation of the energy of an external stimulus into a fact of consciousness,” carried out in sensations, is a necessary condition for the normal functioning of the psyche.

Perception is the reflection in the human mind of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. In the course of perception, individual sensations are ordered and combined into holistic images of things and events.

Unlike sensations, which reflect individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties. Moreover, perception is not reduced to the sum of individual sensations, but represents a qualitatively new stage of sensory cognition with its inherent characteristics. Classification of sensations is made on several grounds.

Based on the presence or absence of direct contact of the receptor with the stimulus causing the sensation, remote and contact reception are distinguished. Vision, hearing, and smell belong to remote reception. Taste, pain, tactile sensations are contact.

Based on the location of the receptors on the surface of the body, in the muscles and tendons or inside the body, exteroception (visual, auditory, tactile), proprioception (sensations to the tendon muscles) and interoception (sensations of hunger, thirst) are distinguished, respectively. According to the time of occurrence during the evolution of the animal world, ancient and new sensitivity are distinguished.

Various sense organs, which give us information about the state of the external world around us, can display these phenomena with greater or less accuracy.

The sensitivity of a sense organ is determined by the minimal stimulus that, under given conditions, was capable of causing sensation. The lower threshold of sensations determines the level of absolute sensitivity of this analyzer. The higher the sensitivity, the lower the threshold value.

The upper absolute threshold of sensitivity is the maximum strength of the stimulus at which a sensation adequate to the current stimulus still occurs. The value of absolute thresholds, both lower and upper, varies depending on various conditions: the nature of the activity and age of the person, the functional state of the receptor, the strength and duration of stimulation.

The minimum difference between two stimuli that causes a barely noticeable difference in sensations is called the discrimination threshold, or difference threshold. Difference sensitivity is relative. The discrimination threshold is characterized by a relative value that is constant for a given analyzer.