Sociological explanations of the causes of deviation

Deviation is a set of deviations in personal behavior, which are based on a violation of social norms and rules. From the point of view of social science, deviations in society are a threat to security. Everyone understands this, but immoral acts and illegal actions are not uncommon today.

It is important to understand that deviation is a phenomenon that cannot be considered only as negative manifestations, because heroism or talent in a particular area is also considered a deviation from the average statistical norm. But these will be anomalies of a completely different nature.

Definition of the concept

In psychology, deviation is the behavior of people that violates the stability of interpersonal interaction. Psychologists say that deviation is the behavior of an individual that contradicts sociocultural norms, moral and ethical principles of society.

The structure of deviation includes:

• human behavior;
• value relations and moral orientations of the individual;
• social norms and rules, which are the main criterion for deviant behavior;
• evaluative attitude of others.

Sometimes the manifestation of mental illness from the outside looks like a deliberate violation of norms and rules. But deviant behavior and a medical diagnosis cannot be equated.

The concept of "deviation"

Social deviation is one of the types of social behavior that has its own characteristics and characteristics.
This behavior is characterized as unfavorable, deviating from generally accepted norms and values. And in this case, this is a complete contrast to socially acceptable behavior in a certain society or social group. Note 1

Deviation has a negative impact on a person’s mental state, which does not allow him to fully create new social connections and enter into communications.

Despite the fact that deviant behavior is often divided into positive or negative, research is carried out in the area of ​​specifically negative features of this type of behavior. Its manifestations lead to the need in society to apply special, both formal and informal sanctions. These include isolation of the individual from the rest of society for preventive purposes, treatment for bad habits and mental disorders, subsequent rehabilitation in special organizations and medical institutions, correction or punishment of the violator by imposing a fine or criminal punishment if the violation is of a sharply negative nature. Especially often, criminal punishment is imposed if a person’s behavior is completely out of control, and he caused damage to another person or an entire group (beating, theft, murder, intentional or unintentional, state of passion).

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Note 2

Let us note that the problem of social deviation and deviant behavior has been studied since the emergence of sociology as a science. For example, one of the famous works on deviant behavior that goes beyond the norm is E. Durkheim's work “Suicide,” which was published in 1897 and has become a classic work in the field of social deviance studies.

Deviation theory

The first researcher who tried to answer the question of what deviation is was E. Durkheim. Scientists paid close attention to deviations in the 19th century. At this time, many different theories and concepts appeared to explain the emergence of destructive processes in behavior. Common theories of deviation include:

1. Biologization theories (the theory of Ch. Lomborzo, in which the author correlates certain features of external appearance with a person’s tendency to engage in illegal behavior; the theory of W. Sheldon). The authors of these theories are convinced that destructive behavior is caused by genetics and innate mental characteristics. For example, it was believed that physically strong people with protruding jaws and a high pain threshold were more likely to be involved in criminal activity.
2. Sociologizing concepts (G. Becker's conflict theory, the concept of stigmatization, E. Durkheim's functional theory, Merton's theory, P. Miller's theory of delinquent cultures, G. Tarde's theory of imitation, E. Sutherland's concept of differential association). Proponents of this approach believe that anomalies arise as a result of the negative influence of society on an individual. Researchers see the causes of deviations in social inequality. As a rule, deviant behavior does not arise immediately. It is preceded by various failures, stress, certain incidents.
3. Psychological theories (S. Freud's concept). The psychoanalyst considered people’s intrapersonal conflicts to be the root cause of deviant behavior, and regarded their external manifestations as the result of experienced psychotrauma.

As a result of many years of research into the behavioral phenomenon, scientists came to the conclusion that it arises under the combined influence of several factors: biological, psychological and social.

How to write a term paper on speech therapy

07.09.2010 192792

These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.

Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.

The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.

The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.

The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.

Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.

As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.

The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.

In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.

So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.

The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.

Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”

The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.

The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.

Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.

The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.

The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.

When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.

The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.

The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.

You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:

– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.

The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.

The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.

The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.

When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:

– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;

– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;

– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;

– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);

– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.

A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.

When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.

As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].

When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].

However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.

In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.

When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:

– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.

– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.

– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.

In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.

The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.

The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.

The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.

The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.

In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.

The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.

Literature:

1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.

2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.

Forms

Forms of deviation were identified by R. Merton. When analyzing deviation, he did not consider the act itself, but tried to establish what element of a person’s life served as the motive for this or that action. He paid close attention to the methods by which a person achieves an asocial or prosocial goal. He associated the concept of deviation with the contradiction between the needs of the individual and his capabilities to satisfy them.

Types

It is believed that deviations from the norm in the form of deviation can be classified into the following types:

• positive deviations from the average norm;
• negative deviations associated with mental disorders;
• illegal and criminal acts;
• cultural deviations;
• aggressive actions;
• antisocial behavior;
• negative non-criminal actions (suicidal attempts, vagrancy, alcoholism, drug addiction).

All deviations are divided into 2 types: primary and secondary. Primary deviation is a type of deviant behavior that is not punished in any way by authorized bodies. Secondary deviation is an irreversible change in the personal sphere that occurs as a result of the systematic repetition of certain actions of a destructive nature.

Depending on the number of participants in antisocial actions, deviations can be group or individual.

Clayburgh suggests dividing all deviations in society into 3 types:

• negative (crime, substance use);
• neutral deviations (vagrancy, begging);
• positive (self-sacrifice).

E. Zmanovskaya believed that deviation is a social phenomenon that needs to be talked about in simple terms from the point of view of the negative consequences of an individual’s actions for himself or for society. She identified the following types of this social phenomenon:

• self-destructive deviant behavior (examples of such deviation are suicide, victimization, unjustified risk);
• asocial disregard for the norms and rules of public life (protest against legislation causes universal condemnation and is punishable by sanctions);
• antisocial actions that threaten the life and health of citizens

According to another classification, the following types of deviation are distinguished:

• Innovation – this type involves the use of prohibited actions to achieve a goal. In a negative context, this type of deviant behavior is characteristic of criminals and blackmailers. In the positive version, such deviant behavior is used by scientists.
• Retreatism is a kind of escape from reality. This way of existence is used by people with alcohol, gaming or drug addiction.
• Ritualism is the following of certain stereotypes that contradict the true purpose of the activity.
• Riot is an active form of protest against established norms and rules. An individual with this behavioral stereotype tries to protect his interests and put forward his ideas with the help of aggressive actions.

Deviation and norm. Concept and types of deviant behavior

Deviant behavior is behavior that violates the social norms of a particular society. It is expressed in the actions, behavior (or inaction) of both individuals and social groups that deviate from generally accepted norms, rules, principles, patterns of behavior, customs, and traditions established by law or established in a particular society.

In the historical aspect, the emergence of the sociology of deviant behavior is associated with the name of E. Durkheim, who proposed the concept of anomie (“no norm”). In his opinion, anomie is a consequence of crises and drastic social changes and is a situation in society that is characterized by the weakening or destruction of norms and the inconsistency of rules governing social relations. As a result of this, individuals lose their social orientation, which contributes to the development of deviant behavior. Thus, in his work “Suicide,” Durkheim noted that during periods of social downturns and upswings, the number of suicides increases, showing that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior.

In sociology, problems of deviant behavior were also considered in cultural theories that see the causes of social deviations in the conflict between the norms of subcultures and the dominant culture. E. Satterland, the author of the theory of differentiated connection, argued that crime is learned, that criminal deviation is a consequence of repeated and prolonged communication of an individual with carriers of deviant norms of behavior.

Unlike criminology, criminal law and other legal sciences, which consider deviant behavior from the perspective of violation of legal norms, sociology uses a broader definition of deviance as a deviation from generally accepted values ​​and norms.

It classifies as deviant behavior not only crimes and other offenses, but also alcoholism, drunkenness, drug addiction, vagrancy, parasitism, child neglect, immoral behavior, etc.

However, a stereotype has emerged according to which deviants—subjects of deviant behavior—are people who pose a certain danger, a certain threat to stability and social order. This is not entirely true. Social deviations can manifest themselves in various forms, including crime, drug addiction, and alcoholism. However, political radicals, innovative artists, great commanders and statesmen can just as easily be classified as deviants. Their behavior is also deviant.

Russian researcher Ya. Gilinsky highlights the negative

deviant behavior that harms society and impedes social development, and
positive
deviance are various forms of social creativity.

The problem is not simply the deviation of behavior from existing norms, but the attitude of society towards it. In this regard, deviation can be socially approved or condemned. Here it is necessary to give another interpretation of deviant behavior - deviance is defined as the compliance (or non-compliance) of actions with social expectations. In this case, it is extremely difficult to determine what is a deviation and what is not.

Deviant behavior as a social phenomenon has certain historical roots and is characterized by stability and mass distribution. The variety of social norms operating in society - religious, aesthetic, political, legal, etc. - entails a variety of deviations (social deviations). Over time, both social norms and rules and social deviations undergo changes. What was previously considered deviant can turn into normal behavior and vice versa. The emergence of new laws and rules entails new types of deviations. Therefore, the social assessment of deviations must be carried out from a historical perspective and be specific.

Social deviation can be embodied both in a separate act of an individual, and in a series of actions that characterize the behavior of an individual. The activities of social groups (for example, families) can also be deviant in nature, having a negative impact on the relationships of individuals within and outside these groups. In the activities of representatives of teams and organizations, deviant behavior can manifest itself in the form of bureaucracy, parochialism, bribery, deviation from the rules of fair competition, tax evasion, as well as other violations of established rules and legal, organizational or moral requirements imposed on them.

Violation of social norms also occurs in the sphere of interstate and intrastate relations, which leads to an increase in the spread of social deviations and intensifies the social consequences of deviant behavior, expressed in acts of aggression, genocide, terrorism, apartheid, slavery, destruction or destruction of cultural values, etc. . A number of authors classify the most dangerous types of deviant behavior as social pathologies.

Deviation (deviation) in the consciousness and behavior of people usually matures gradually. Moreover, in sociology there is the concept of “ primary deviation”

", when others turn a blind eye to certain deviations, and a person who ignores certain rules does not consider himself a violator. Such deviations border on minor offenses or immoral actions and for the time being may not be noticed (farewell, ignored), such as, for example, drinking alcohol with random people, leading to a violation of public morality.

But there is a second level of deviant behavior ( secondary deviation

), when a person is openly recognized as a violator of moral or legal norms by the surrounding social group or official organizations, which is always associated with a certain reaction to his actions.

When considering deviant behavior, it is important to distinguish between individual and collective

forms of deviation. If the former refers to violations of moral requirements, then in the second case, deviant behavior is a reflection of the activities of a certain social group - a criminal gang or a savage sect, which create some semblance of their “culture” (subculture) and openly confront accepted norms.

At the same time, it is impossible, as follows from a number of studies, to consider any deviation as deviant behavior. In this case, all social groups and all people will fall under this definition, because there is not a single person or social group in society who would absolutely comply with the norms and rules in all situations, in all cases of life.

2. Causes of deviations . Deviant behavior in people exists because:

§ Firstly, a new social system does not arise out of nowhere, but grows out of a number of elements of the previous, destroyed system - whether we are talking about people or elements of the productive forces, spiritual or material culture.

§ Secondly, the process of development of a new social system is usually uneven, and this gives rise to disproportions in the ratio of its elements and leads to a lag of some of them and certain defects in functioning.

§ Thirdly, incomplete adaptation of the developing system to the external and internal conditions of its existence may be observed. in other words, social, cultural, or technological development may not keep pace with newly emerging social, spiritual, or economic needs.

§ Fourthly, random events cannot be discounted. All this taken together serves as a specific source of negative phenomena.

Let's look at these reasons in more detail.

Deviant behavior is mediated mainly by economic relations. It is not directly dependent on their condition. The relationship is more complex and multifaceted. But the fact that it exists is evidenced by the entire history of the existence of society.

The main thing that should not be overlooked is the existence of various forms of social inequality. Some forms of inequality have existed and will continue to exist, and often they are caused not by objectively determined reasons, but by deformed social relations. The source of deviant behavior in the Soviet period was the contradictions between skilled and unskilled, prestigious and non-prestigious labor, which created the preconditions for contradictory actions of people. Of course, this does not mean that unskilled labor entails deviations.

In the mid-90s. In the 20th century, these contradictions were supplanted by other reasons that were generated by mass unemployment. It was unemployment that became a breeding ground for the formation of groups with deviant behavior - homeless people, tramps, drug addicts and criminals.

When analyzing the conditions and causes of deviations, one cannot ignore the conflicting interests of various layers and groups of the population. Untimely and inadequate resolution of contradictions leaves an imprint on the consciousness and behavior of people. Due to the neglect of public interests, a gap between word and deed and social apathy grow. Seeing mismanagement and indifference of management to material values, people begin to have a passive attitude towards everything, looking for ways to make their work easier at the expense of society.

The source of negative phenomena are errors in management, violations of the rule of law, the principles of democracy and justice.

When considering social deviations, one cannot ignore the issue of social heredity. It is associated with the reproduction of both positive and negative aspects of people’s lifestyles. The mechanism of social heredity is not without contradictions. One of them is that the subject of continuity becomes not only normal, positive, but also vicious life experience, which is transmitted from generation to generation through social information.

And, finally, deviant behavior is associated with inadequate reflection in the minds of some people of the process of development and functioning of social relations. Firstly, the views and sentiments that developed at the previous stage of social development often come into conflict with new conditions. Secondly, in the course of practical activity, ideas arise or are revived that one-sidedly interpret the meaning and direction of transformations.

Analysis of manifestations of deviant behavior involves the identification of typological groups that have both common features and specific features. In addition to the above (divided into primary and secondary deviations, into individual and group forms), the classification of this type of behavior can be carried out according to the spheres of people’s life. Sometimes deviant behavior is typologized on a different basis - illegal (delinquent) and immoral, based on the fact that norms, standards and rules are determined by two main regulators of people's lives: morality and law. Of course, the boundary between them is arbitrary, however, it can be used as a guide when studying specific forms of deviant behavior.

The types of deviant behavior considered indicate that the individual is trying to resist anomie by developing certain adaptive reactions. Moreover, it is important to note that it is not society that is looking for them, but the individual. The task of a modern developed society is to meet it halfway, to facilitate the search for mutual understanding, to create favorable conditions for activity that would reduce the possibility of social deviations in behavior. In other words, the problem of social control arises.

3. Social control is a mechanism of self-regulation of the system, ensuring the orderly interaction of its constituent elements through normative regulation.

This term was first introduced into scientific circulation by G. Tarde, who said that control is a means of returning the offender to normal life. Influenced by Tarde's ideas, representatives of the Chicago sociological school characterized social control as the purposeful influence of society on the individual in order to create and ensure social order in society.

Social control has traditionally been viewed as part of the overall socialization process. Socialization contributes to the formation of normative behavior of an individual that corresponds to the rules, norms, and customs accepted in a given society. Thus, socialization forms internal control, thereby reducing the need for external control.

Social control manifests itself through group pressure and group control

. The behavior of an individual is influenced by the normative-value mechanism of those groups in whose life activities he is included.

In addition, social control comes in the form of coercion.

carried out through sanctions. They can be applied through group pressure, as well as through institutional and social mechanisms. Coercion is an extreme form of social control.

Also, social control is considered by foreign sociologists as a practice of all types of social groups to prescribe and encourage conformity and apply sanctions to behavior that violates accepted norms.

Thus, social control refers not only to deviants, but to any person, behavior or action that is regulated by social norms, values ​​and standards. The main task of social control is to most fully take into account the interests and needs of a person in a rationally organized society.

Questions for self-control

1. What behavior is called deviant?

2. What are the positive and negative directions of deviations?

3. ++Describe and give examples of various types of deviations.

4. What is social control? What types of social control do you know?

5. What are the specifics of deviations in modern Russian society? What are their reasons?

Literature

Bogoyavlensky D.D. Russian suicides and Russian reforms // Sociol. research 2002. No. 5.

Bykov S.A. Drug addiction among young people as an indicator of maladjustment // Sociol. research 2000. No. 4.

Dvoymenny I.A. Recidivism: nature, factors, level // Sociol. research 2000. No. 1.

Deviance and social control in Russia in the 19th – 20th centuries: trends and sociological understanding / Responsible. ed. ME AND. Gilinsky. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Durkheim E. Suicide: a sociological study. M., 1993.

Osipova O.F. Deviant behavior: good or evil? // Sociol. research 1998. No. 9.

Sadkov E.V. Marginality and crime // Sociol. research 2000. No. 4.

Tatidinova T.G. Organized crime and youth // Sociol. research 2000. No. 1.

Types of deviation

Psychologists and social educators in their work encounter the following types of abnormal behavior:

• delinquent behavior, criminal acts;
• extremism;
• terrorism;
• bad habits;
• prostitution;
• bright makeup, extravagant style of clothing;
• abnormal response of the child to familiar situations;
• various forms of addiction, addiction to gambling;
• vandalism;
• animal abuse;
• extreme form of egocentrism;
• isolation, desire to minimize social contacts, recluse, autism;
• excessive sociability;
• foul language;
• the child ignoring the demands of adults;
• poor development of individual self-control skills;
• mood swings for no apparent reason, which lead to constant internal tension and disruptions in the functioning of the nervous system;
• unmotivated aggression and self-harming behavior;
• tendency to solve problems with fists;
• anxiety, phobias, panic attacks;
• suicide attempts;
• pathological processes in the psyche;
• behavioral deviations caused by mistakes in family upbringing.

Positive deviations include:

• genius or talent of an individual in a particular field of science or art;
• a high level of development of patriotism, performing heroic deeds for the benefit of other people and humanity as a whole;
• the ability to sacrifice oneself and one’s interests for the sake of a common cause or the interests of another person;
• altruistic orientation of the personality, heightened sense of pity;
• pronounced diligence and a heightened sense of duty;
• the presence of certain unique abilities in a person.

Unlike negative ones, positive types of deviations do not cause condemnation from society.

Theories of deviant behavior

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Scientists are trying to explain the origins and causes of deviant behavior. Three types of theory can be distinguished: biological

(theories of physical types),
psychological
(psychoanalytic explanations),
sociological
(culturological, stigmatization, anomie).

Let's look at these theories in more detail.

At the end of the 19th century, Italian physician Cesare Lombroso discovered a connection between criminal behavior and certain physical traits. He believed that people are predisposed to certain types of behavior by their biological make-up. Lombroso argued that the "criminal type" is the result of a degradation to earlier stages of human evolution. This type can be identified by such characteristic features as a protruding lower jaw, a sparse beard and decreased sensitivity to pain.

Lombroso's theory became widespread, and some thinkers became his followers - they also established a connection between deviant behavior and certain physical traits.

William H. Sheldon, a famous American psychologist and physician, emphasized the importance of body structure. He believed that a certain body structure meant the presence of important personality traits. Endomorph

(a person of moderate obesity with a soft and somewhat rounded body) is characterized by sociability, the ability to get along with people and self-indulgence.
The mesomorph
(whose body is strong and resilient) tends to be anxious, active and not overly sensitive.
And finally, the ectomorph
(distinguished by the thinness and fragility of the body) is prone to introspection, endowed with increased sensitivity and nervousness. Based on a study of the behavior of two hundred young men in a rehabilitation center, Sheldon concluded that mesomorphs are most prone to deviation, although they do not always become criminals.

Although such biological concepts were popular in the early 20th century, other concepts gradually replaced them. There has been evidence that some mental disorders, especially schizophrenia, may be due to genetic predisposition. In addition, some biological characteristics can influence the psyche of an individual. For example, if a boy is teased for being short, his response may be directed against society and result in deviant behavior. But in such cases, biological factors only indirectly contribute to the movement of deviation, combined with social or sociological ones. Therefore, any biological analysis of deviation must take into account a combination of many factors.

The psychological approach, as well as biological theories, is often applied to the analysis of criminal behavior. Past scholars who sought a psychological explanation of deviance emphasized the importance of so-called general conditions: “mental defects,” “degeneracy,” “feeble-mindedness,” and “psychopathy.” Criminologists have tried, using scientific methods, to establish a connection between these conditions and criminal behavior. Psychoanalysts proposed a theory that linked deviant behavior to mental disorders. They are based on the study of conflicts occurring within the consciousness of the individual. For example, Freud believed that in every personality, under a layer of active consciousness, there is an area of ​​the unconscious. The unconscious is our psychic energy, in which everything primitive is concentrated, knowing no boundaries, knowing no pity. The unconscious is the biological essence of a person who has not experienced the influence of culture. A person is able to protect himself from an unconscious state by forming an Ego and Superego, which restrain and limit our instincts and base passions. However, a state may arise when internal conflicts between the Ego and the unconscious destroy the defense and our inner, culturally ignorant content breaks through. In this case, deviation from cultural norms may occur.

Freud introduced the concept of “guilt criminals”, we are talking about people who want to be caught and punished because they feel guilty because of their “destroying drive”, they are sure that imprisonment of some kind would at least help them overcome their attraction.

Thorough research has shown that the essence of deviation cannot be explained solely on the basis of an analysis of psychological factors. Currently, most psychologists and sociologists recognize that personality characteristics and the motives of its actions have an important influence on all types of deviant behavior. But, apparently, by analyzing any one psychological trait, conflict or complex, it is impossible to explain the essence of crime and other types of deviation.

Sociological explanation takes into account the social and cultural factors on the basis of which people are considered deviants.

Anomie theory.

A sociological explanation was first proposed in the theory of anomie developed by Durkheim. He used this theory to explore the nature of suicide. Durkheim believed that one of the causes of suicide is anomie (disregulation). Explaining this phenomenon, he emphasized that social rules play an important role in regulating people's lives. Norms guide their behavior; they know what to expect from others and what is expected of them. People's life experiences, that is, their pleasures and disappointments, more or less correspond to the expectations that are determined by social norms. However, during times of crisis or radical social change, life experiences no longer correspond to the ideals embodied in social norms. As a result, people experience a state of confusion and disorientation.

Although Durkheim's theory has been criticized, the basic idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is still generally accepted today. The term "social disorganization" refers to a state of society in which cultural values, norms, and relationships are absent, weakened, or contradict each other. Conflicting criteria for assessing people's behavior and weak control on the part of the authorities significantly contribute to the increase in crime.

More recently, the theory of anomie has found a new expression in the concept of “social hoops.” Travis Hirschi argues that the more people believe in the values ​​​​accepted by society, the more actively they strive for successful studies, participation in socially approved activities, the higher their attachment to family, the less likely they are to commit deviant acts.

Merton made some changes to the concept of anomie. He believes that the cause of deviation is the gap between the cultural goals of society and the socially approved means of achieving them. According to Merton, when people strive, for example, for financial success, but become convinced that it cannot be achieved through socially approved means, they may resort to illegal means - racketeering, speculation, etc.

Cultural explanations also include the social type

, which emphasize the analysis of cultural values ​​that favor deviance.

Sellin emphasized that deviance arises as a result of conflicts between cultural norms. He studied the behavior of certain groups of criminals, whose norms differ from the norms of the rest of society.

Miller deepened Sellin's idea of ​​the relationship between culture and deviant behavior. He argued that there is a distinct subculture of the lower class of society, one of the manifestations of which is group crime. This subculture attaches great importance to such qualities as risk-taking, endurance, thrill-seeking, and luck.

Sutherland tried to explain why only some people internalize the values ​​of a deviant subculture, while others reject it. He introduces the concept of "differentiated association" and argues that crime is learned. People distribute values ​​that contribute to deviation in the course of communication with the bearers of these values. If most of a person's friends and relatives are involved in criminal activities, there is a possibility that he will also become a criminal. The frequency of contacts with deviants, as well as their quantity and duration, influence the intensity of a person’s assimilation of deviant values. Age also plays an important role.

Over the past 20 years, several new approaches to deviance have emerged that focus on those who evaluate a person for deviance and how an individual who is labeled a deviant is treated.

Howard Becker rejected many psychological and sociological explanations of deviance because they are based on the "medical model" in which a person who exhibits deviant behavior is considered to be in some sense "sick." Such approaches do not take into account the political aspect of deviance. Becker believed that deviation is actually due to the ability of influential groups in society to impose certain standards of behavior on others.

Becker's concept and others like it are called stigma theory

, because they explain deviant behavior by the ability of powerful groups to label members of less powerful groups as “deviants.” Primary deviation is observed when an individual only occasionally breaks the rules, but those around him turn a blind eye to this, and he himself does not consider himself a deviant at all. The secondary is characterized by the fact that a person is labeled as a “deviant”, those around him treat him differently from ordinary people, and gradually he begins to consider himself a deviant. In contrast to concepts that focus on the characteristics of individuals that contribute to deviance, stigma theory explains how attitudes towards people as deviants are formed.

A distinctly political approach to deviance has been chosen by sociologists who call themselves “ radical criminologists.”

" They reject all theories of crime that interpret it as a violation of generally accepted laws; argue that such concepts characterize society as a whole. According to their point of view, the creation of laws and obedience to them are part of the conflict that occurs in society between different groups. “Radical criminology” is not interested in why people break laws, but analyzes the essence of the legal system itself. Moreover, proponents of this theory view deviants not as violators of generally accepted rules, but rather as rebels opposing capitalist society.

Thus, there are profound differences between the various biological, psychological explanations of deviation. But all these theories share a common tendency. Recently, less importance has been attached to the biological and psychological factors that push people to deviant behavior. The newest theories emphasize the character of society and seek to identify the extent to which it is interested in creating and maintaining deviation. The newest theories are much more critical of the existing social structure; they prove the need to correct not individual people, but the entire society as a whole.

Types of deviation

The typologization of deviant behavior is associated with difficulties, since any of its manifestations can be considered both deviant and non-deviant; everything is determined by the regulatory requirements against which they are assessed. Therefore, there is probably no point in making a classification of types of absolute deviant behavior, although some of them, for example, rape, murder, are considered deviant by most people (but not all). How to typologize deviant behavior?

The most successful of all the classifications of deviant acts developed so far, proposed by Marton. It classifies deviant behavior based on an analysis of factors that contribute to people's acceptance or rejection of society's goals, socially approved means of achieving them, or both. According to this classification , conformism

presupposes agreement with the goals of society and the legal means of achieving them. A young man or girl who receives a good education, finds a prestigious job and successfully moves up the career ladder is the personification of conformity; they set a goal and achieve it through legal means. It should be borne in mind that conformity is the only type of non-deviant behavior.

The second possible response is called innovation.

, it presupposes agreement with the goals approved by a given culture, but denies socially approved ways of achieving them. The “innovator” will use new but illegal means of achieving wealth - he engages in racketeering, blackmail, etc.

The third reaction, called ritualism

, implies a denial of the goals of a given culture, but agreement (sometimes taken to the point of absurdity) to use socially approved means.

The fourth reaction, called escape from reality ( retriatism

), observed when a person simultaneously rejects both goals and socially approved means of achieving them. The most striking manifestations of retreatism are the marginalized: tramps, drunkards, the mentally ill, drug addicts, etc.

Finally a riot

, like escapism, also simultaneously denies cultural goals and socially approved means of achievement. But it leads to the replacement of old goals and means with new ones - a new ideology develops.

Merton's concept is important primarily because it views conformity and deviance as two sides of the same scale, rather than as separate categories. It also emphasizes that deviance is not the product of a completely negative attitude towards generally accepted standards, as many people often assume. The thief does not reject the socially approved goal of achieving material well-being. The bureaucrat, personifying ritualism, does not abandon the generally accepted rules of work, but carries them out too literally, which leads to the point of absurdity. However, both of these people exhibit deviant behavior.

Each of the theories we have considered identifies different aspects of deviation. It is possible to streamline these approaches if you look at it as a development process. Thus, it is possible to identify a number of important transitional stages in the development of deviant behavior: the creation of norms; the essence of norms; committing a deviant act; recognition of an act as deviant; recognition of a person as a deviant; stigmatization (branding); consequences of stigmatization; collective forms of deviation.

Questions for self-control

1. What is deviation?

2. What forms of social deviations are observed in society?

3. How can we formulate the basic concept of the theories of “physical types” and psychoanalytic theories?

4. What is meant by the term “anomaly” within the framework of sociological theories? How was this term used in the studies of E. Durkheim and R. Merton?

5. What is R. Merton’s typology of deviant personality based on in relation to goals and means of achieving them?

Conclusion

The presentation of the main content of the sociology course allows us to draw some general conclusions, the most important of which are the following: living in society and not knowing it is like searching in the dark for a way out of a long and complex labyrinth. Society is the most complex and difficult object of scientific knowledge. Sociology, which is at the center of modern social science, has made and continues to make a significant contribution to the study of the laws of the functioning of society and its development.

The focus of sociology is on the problems of interaction between an individual, a social group and society as a whole. We can say that this is the main question of sociology, since it is on its solution that one or another understanding of the essence of the individual and society, their organization, life activity, sources and paths of development depends. Sociologists have argued a lot about the priority of the individual or society. Its real solution lies not in isolating and opposing one to the other, but in organizing their close and harmonious interaction.

The textbook does not contain abundant citations of various literary sources, which, in the author’s opinion, does not contribute to a clear logic of presentation of the material and complicates its study. However, all of the above was the result of the study of numerous monographs, articles and textbooks on sociology by both domestic and foreign authors.

It is hoped that students will gain an understanding of sociology as an established science in which there is a logically based system of clear definitions, concepts and postulates.

The author is far from convinced that the presented material fully covers all areas of sociology and the problems existing in it, however, there is no doubt that the basic concepts and categories of sociology are reflected here. This makes it possible to hope that this textbook will be convenient for students to master the course.

Bibliography

Main literature:

1. Dobrenkov, V. I.

Sociology: textbook / V. I. Dobrenkov, A. I. Kravchenko. – M.: INFRA-M, 2006. – 623 p.

2. Mukhaev, R. T.

Sociology: textbook / R. T. Mukhaev. – M.: Book service, 2003. – 543 p.

3. Radugin, A. A.

Sociology: course of lectures / A. A. Radugin. – M.: Center, 1997. – 312 p.

Additional literature:

4. Kravchenko, A. A.

Sociology: textbook / A. A. Kravchenko. – M.: Academy, 2005. – 367 p.

5. Kravchenko, A. I.

Sociology: textbook / A. I. Kravchenko. – M.: Prospekt, 2008. – 533 p.

6. Fundamentals of Sociology: textbook / ed. M. V. Prokopova. – M.: Russian business literature, 2000. – 388 p.

7. Toshchenko, Zh. T.

Sociology: general course / Zh. T. Toshchenko. – M.: Promenik, 1994. – 369 p.

8. Frolov, S. S.

Sociology: textbook / S. S. Frolov. – M.: Logos, 2003. – 255 p.

9. Kharcheva, V.

Fundamentals of Sociology: textbook / V. Kharcheva. – M.: Logos, 1999. – 370 p.

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Signs

Traditionally, signs of behavioral deviations include:

• tough temperament, aggressiveness;
• egocentrism;
• painful perception of criticism;
• causeless change of mood;
• poor development of self-control skills;
• isolation, craving for loneliness;
• the individual has symptoms of a mental disorder;
• connection of a person with a criminal group, communication with criminal personalities;
• a person’s desire and willingness to resist the opinion of the majority.

Reasons and background

Psychologists began to study the causes and prerequisites for the formation of deviations in order to develop effective methods to combat them. Factors causing behavioral abnormalities are:

• genetic predisposition;
• age (deviations often occur in adolescents, accompanying the process of formation of elements of an individual’s self-awareness);
• low intellectual potential of the individual;
• presence of character accentuations;
• unfavorable level of economic development of the region in which the person lives;
• awareness of social inequality;
• a person’s material difficulties;
• political instability in the country;
• raising a child in an antisocial environment;
• mistakes of family education;
• low level of development of the moral foundations of the individual;
• a person’s dubious social environment, copying incorrect patterns of behavior under group pressure;
• difficulties in personal socialization;
• stress;
• pathological processes in the nervous system and brain;
• psychosomatic disorders;
• interests and inclinations of the individual, peculiarities of perception;
• open propaganda of sexual liberation in the media;
• inconsistency of social norms, which leads to the difficulty of choosing the only correct model of behavior;
• a person’s lack of opportunities to meet their needs;
• a sense of permissiveness and confidence in impunity;
• learned helplessness, the habit of shifting responsibility for one’s life to others;
• desire to become famous on the Internet;
• adolescent desire to gain recognition from members of the reference group;
• a teenager’s desire to look like an adult;
• desire to make the world a better place.

Examples of deviations

I will give examples of negative, neutral and positive deviations:

1. The child was born into a prosperous full family. The parenting style was overprotective. Having reached adolescence, the child became uncontrollable: he began to blackmail his parents and insult his mother. Parents believed that adolescence is difficult for all children; they need to be patient. They did not take active measures to solve the problem; they reduced control and custody of their son. As a result, the parents did not notice how the boy got involved with bad company, where he became addicted to drugs.
2. The girl has been shy since childhood. It is difficult for her to talk to a stranger, to make a request to someone. Mom believes that shyness is synonymous with modesty, so she makes no attempt to eradicate this character trait of her daughter. The girl has few friends; in class she is considered withdrawn because she does not greet her classmates and refuses to play group games during breaks. On the part of the teachers, there are no complaints against the girl regarding her studies, no sanctions can be applied to her, her shyness does not harm others, but is at the same time a form of neutral deviation.
3. For many years, an employee of the research institute has been developing his own methodology for teaching preschool children to read. After defending his doctoral dissertation, he opened a linguistic center and began working with children according to his own program. After a few months, 4-5 year old children learned to read. The innovative activity of a scientist in this case is an example of positive deviation.

Types of deviation (according to R. Merton)

Anomie, therefore, according to Durkheim, is a state in which a person does not have a strong sense of belonging, no reliability and stability in choosing a line of normative behavior.

Anomie increases with social disintegration . The term "social disorganization" refers to a state of society in which cultural values, norms, and social relationships are absent, weakened, or contradictory .

The idea that social disorganization is the main cause of deviant behavior is generally accepted today.

2. Robert K. Merton made some changes to Durkheim's concept of anomie. He believes that the cause of deviation is the gap between the cultural goals of society and the socially approved means of achieving them. According to Merton, when people strive for financial success but become convinced that it cannot be achieved through socially approved means, they may resort to illegal means, such as racketeering, horse racing, or drug dealing. The source of deviation may be the presence of social inequality in society, a high degree of differences in the ability to satisfy needs for different social groups, and at the individual level - social disorder. At the same time , deviation occurs when an individual identifies himself with a subculture, the norms of which contradict the norms of the dominant culture ( young men can adopt role models of successful deviants, for example, participants in organized or professional crime who have gained influence, prestige and a high position in society). If most of a person's friends and relatives are involved in criminal activities, there is a possibility that he will also become a criminal. The frequency of contacts with deviants, as well as their quantity and duration, influence the intensity of a person’s assimilation of deviant values. Age also plays an important role. The younger a person is, the more readily he assimilates patterns of behavior imposed by others .

One of the most important factors in teaching moral values ​​and behavioral norms is the family. When a child is socialized into a happy, strong and healthy family, he usually develops as a self-confident, well-mannered individual who perceives the norms of the surrounding culture as fair and self-evident. Numerous studies of youth crime have shown that about 85% of young people with deviant behavior were brought up in dysfunctional families.

However, there are also numerous cases of deviant behavior in completely prosperous families. The fact is that the family is far from the only (albeit the most important) institution in society involved in the socialization of the individual. Norms adopted from childhood can be revised or discarded during interaction with the surrounding reality, in particular with the social environment.

3. Another sociological theory of deviance, “labeling theory,” points to the fact that deviance can be a product of social structure and social control. Deviance is a kind of stigma that social groups with power place on the behavior of other, less protected groups.

This theory is based essentially on two principles:

· deviant is not just a violation of a norm, but in fact any behavior that can be successfully defined as such if it can be labeled as deviant (deviation is contained not so much in the action itself, but in the reaction of others to this action) ;

· labeling produces or spreads deviation, the deviant's response to social reaction leads to repeated deviation.

How to typologize deviant behavior? Apparently, the classification of deviant acts proposed by Merton is the most successful of all those developed so far. Deviation, according to Merton, arises as a result of anomie, a gap between cultural goals and socially approved means of achieving them. Based on this, Merton builds a typology of deviant actions.

He identified five models of social adaptation of an individual to the cultural norms developed in society, depending on whether people recognize the prevailing values ​​and whether they follow the rules for achieving value benefits.

· Conformal (adaptive) model of adaptation - when a person shares the goals of a given culture and society and strives to implement them by legal, recommended means. In Merton's system, total conformism implies agreement with the goals of society and the legitimate means of achieving them. A young man or woman who receives a good education, finds a prestigious job and successfully moves up the career ladder is the personification of conformity; they set a goal (say, financial success) and achieve it through legal means. It should be borne in mind that conformity is the only type of non-deviant behavior.

· The innovative model of adaptation is characterized by the fact that the individual accepts the goals of the community, but strives to achieve them by unusual, unrecognized and, possibly, disapproved means (common in the new strata of modern Russian society, which are driven by the motive of enrichment). The “innovator” will use new but illegal means of achieving wealth - he engages in racketeering, blackmail, or commits so-called “white collar crimes” (like embezzlement of other people’s money).

• Ritualism, as another deviant form of personal adaptation, on the contrary, manifests itself in the fact that a person does not recognize the goals and values ​​of his community, but, nevertheless, observes the “rules of the game” and behaves in accordance with established ideas about acceptable means of social achievement. The bureaucrat, fanatically dedicated to his work, insists that every form be carefully filled out, double-checked and filed in quadruplicate. In the end, he becomes a victim of the cruel bureaucratic system and drinks himself out of despair. This happens precisely because oblivion of the purpose of the activity is revealed - why all this is being done.
• Escapism (escapism), or retreatism (detachment, withdrawal from social reality into one’s own extravagant worlds), a model of “parallel existence”, recognition of one’s own foreignness and the inability to resist established stereotypes in society (neither its goals nor means are shared). The most striking manifestation of such deviation are the marginalized: tramps, drunkards, the mentally ill, drug addicts, etc.
• Rebellion is a form of deviant behavior that is aimed at active opposition and refutation of the norms of social organization , when both generally accepted goals and the means of achieving them are denied. R. Merton, speaking about deviance, distinguished its special form - nonconformism. A nonconformist is familiar with social norms, but considers them unfair and openly flouts them, calling on others to change the existing system. The nonconformist seeks a new morality and acts quite responsibly, although he deviates from existing norms. He is a social reformer far ahead of his time. This form of deviation, from a long-term perspective, should be called constructive (in contrast to destructive, when a person knows and accepts the norm, but for the sake of profit is able to violate it, that is, act irresponsibly in relation to society).