12 facts about libido that are important to know

According to Freud, libido is

Libido in S. Freud's theory is desire, passion, attraction, which aims to achieve pleasure.
According to Freud, the displacement of libidinal energy along erogenous zones determines human development. oral phase from birth to 1 year,

anal phase from 1 year to 3 years,

latent stage from 5 to 12 years,

genital stage from 12 to 18 years.

Freud was convinced that disturbances in the development of libido lead to mental disorders, but research did not confirm this belief.

Freud's thesis that libido underlies all behavior that leads to pleasure has now been refuted. Freud's theory that mental disorders occur solely due to impaired libido development has also been refuted.

The concept of defense mechanisms in psychoanalysis.

Freud believed that the EGO reacts to the threat of a breakthrough of id impulses in two ways: 1) by blocking the expression of impulses in conscious behavior or 2) by distorting them to such an extent that their original intensity noticeably decreases or deviates to the side.

All defense mechanisms have two common characteristics: 1) they operate on an unconscious level and are therefore means of self-deception and 2) they distort, deny or falsify the perception of reality in order to make anxiety less threatening to the individual. It should also be noted that people rarely use any single defense mechanism; they typically use a variety of defense mechanisms to resolve conflict or relieve anxiety. We'll look at some basic defensive strategies below.

Crowding out. Freud viewed repression as the primary defense of the ego, not only because it is the basis for the formation of more complex defense mechanisms, but also because it provides the most direct route of escape from anxiety. Sometimes described as “motivated forgetting,” repression is the process of removing painful thoughts and feelings from awareness.

Liberation from anxiety through repression does not pass without a trace. Freud believed that repressed thoughts and impulses do not lose their activity in the unconscious, and to prevent their breakthrough into consciousness requires a constant expenditure of mental energy. This constant draining of ego resources can seriously limit the use of energy for more adaptive, self-developmental, creative behavior.

However, the constant desire of repressed material for open expression can receive short-term satisfaction in dreams, jokes, slips of the tongue and other manifestations of what Freud called “the psychopathology of everyday life.” Moreover, according to his theory, repression plays a role in all forms of neurotic behavior, in psychosomatic diseases (such as peptic ulcers), and psychosexual disorders (such as impotence and frigidity). This is the main and most common defense mechanism.

Projection. As a defense mechanism, projection follows repression in its theoretical significance. It is the process by which an individual attributes his or her own unacceptable thoughts, feelings and behavior to other people or the environment. Thus, projection allows a person to place blame on someone or something for his shortcomings or failures.

A golfer criticizing his club after a bad shot is demonstrating primitive projection. On another level, we can see projection in a young woman who is not aware that she is struggling with her strong sexual desire, but suspects everyone who meets her of intending to seduce her.

Finally, a classic example of projection is when a student who did not prepare well for an exam attributes his low grade to unfair testing, cheating by other students, or blames the professor for not explaining the topic in lecture. Projection also explains social prejudice and scapegoating, since ethnic and racial stereotypes provide a convenient target for attributing negative personality characteristics to someone else.

Substitution. In a defense mechanism called substitution, the manifestation of an instinctive impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one. A common example is a child who, after being punished by his parents, pushes his little sister, kicks her dog, or breaks her toys.

Substitution also manifests itself in the increased sensitivity of adults to the slightest irritating moments. For example, an overly demanding employer criticizes an employee, and she reacts with outbursts of rage to minor provocations from her husband and children. She does not realize that, having become objects of her irritation, they are simply replacing the boss.

In each of these examples, the true object of hostility is replaced by something much less threatening to the subject. This form of substitution is less common when it is directed against oneself: hostile impulses addressed to others are redirected to oneself, which causes a feeling of depression or condemnation of oneself.

Rationalization. Another way for the ego to cope with frustration and anxiety is to distort reality and thus protect self-esteem. Rationalization refers to false reasoning that makes irrational behavior appear reasonable and therefore justifiable in the eyes of others.

Stupid mistakes, poor judgments and blunders can be justified through the magic of rationalization. One of the most commonly used types of such defense is the “green grapes” rationalization. This name comes from Aesop's fable about the fox, who could not reach the bunch of grapes and therefore decided that the berries were not yet ripe.

People rationalize in the same way. For example, a man who receives a humiliating refusal from a woman when he asks her out on a date consoles himself with the fact that she is completely unattractive. Similarly, a student who fails to get into dental school may convince herself that she doesn't really want to be a dentist.

Reactive education. Sometimes the ego can defend itself against forbidden impulses by expressing contrary impulses in behavior and thoughts. Here we are dealing with reactive formation, or reverse action. This protective process is implemented in two stages: first, the unacceptable impulse is suppressed: then the completely opposite one appears at the level of consciousness.

Resistance is especially noticeable in socially approved behavior, which at the same time appears exaggerated and inflexible. For example, a woman who experiences anxiety about her own expressed sexual desire may become an adamant fighter in her circle against pornographic films. She may even actively picket film studios or write letters of protest to film companies, expressing strong concern about the degradation of modern film art. Freud wrote that many men who ridicule homosexuals are actually defending themselves against their own homosexual urges.

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Regression. Another well-known defense mechanism used to protect against anxiety is regression. Regression is characterized by a return to childish, childish behavior patterns. It is a way of alleviating anxiety by returning to an earlier, safer and more enjoyable time in life. Easily recognizable manifestations of regression in adults include intemperance, dissatisfaction, and characteristics such as “sulking and not talking” to others, baby talk, resisting authority, or driving at a reckless speed.

Sublimation. According to Freud, sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows a person, for the purpose of adaptation, to change his impulses so that they can be expressed through socially acceptable thoughts or actions. Sublimation is seen as the only healthy, constructive strategy for curbing unwanted impulses because it allows the ego to change the purpose and/or object of impulses without inhibiting their manifestation.

The energy of instincts is diverted through other channels of expression - those that society considers acceptable [Golden, 1987]. For example, if a young man becomes increasingly anxious about masturbation over time, he may sublimate his impulses into socially approved activities such as football, hockey, or other sports.

Freud argued that the sublimation of sexual instincts was the main impetus for great achievements in Western science and culture. He said that the sublimation of sexual desire is a particularly noticeable feature of the evolution of culture - thanks to it alone, the extraordinary rise in science, art and ideology that plays such an important role in our civilized life became possible.

Negation. When a person refuses to acknowledge that an unpleasant event has occurred, it means that he is turning on a defense mechanism called denial. Imagine a father who refuses to believe that his daughter was raped and brutally murdered; he acts as if nothing of the sort happened.

Or imagine a child who denies the death of her beloved cat and stubbornly continues to believe that she is still alive. Denial of reality also occurs when people say or insist, “This simply cannot happen to me,” despite clear evidence to the contrary (as happens when a doctor tells a patient that he has a terminal illness).

oral phase (from birth to 1.5 - 2 years) - pleasure from sucking the mother's breast;
anal phase (from 1 year to 3 years) - associated with the pleasant sensations received by the child during the excretory activity of the colon and bladder;
phallic phase (from 3 to 5 years) - sexual exploration, the formation of the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls;
latent stage (from 5 to 12 years);
genital stage (from 12 to 18 years).

Factors affecting libido

The degree of libido expression in representatives of the stronger half of humanity can change throughout life. Moreover, the main reasons for decreased sexual desire are:

Changes in the level of the hormone testosterone in men and the hormone estrogen in women;
Various diseases of the genitourinary system that affect the health and hormonal levels of the body as a whole;
Prolonged stressful situations and physical fatigue;
Psychological inferiority complexes based on external attractiveness, material values and personal abilities;
Conflict situations with a potential sexual partner.

At the same time, it is important to realize that a decrease in libido or its complete absence should only be dealt with by a competent specialist who initially conducts a complete diagnosis of the patient’s body and determines the cause of the pathology. And only then the specialist improves the patient’s mental and sexual health.

Reasons for decreased sexuality

Women and men simply must know what libido is and what factors influence its change. Sigmund Freud also spoke about this.

Ideally, libido needs to be increased, otherwise serious problems with one’s own sexuality begin, and an inferiority complex arises. Additionally, it is necessary to study what libidinal need is and how compatible these two concepts are.

Libido is affected by a number of psychological and physiological factors, and such changes are not for the better. For example, you can restore libido in case of hormonal disorders using medications, but you can really get rid of critical emotional states only by visiting a psychologist or sexologist.

Hormonal disbalance. Insufficient production of the hormone testosterone provokes problems with everyday erections. There is a need for additional hormonal medications.
Psychological changes. Sexual desire decreases with depression, stress, and chronic fatigue. If psychic energy is not restored, it can lead to impotence in men and frigidity in women.
Chronic diseases. In this case, we are talking about pathologies of the cardiovascular, reproductive, nervous and endocrine systems, which develop equally in women and men and are prone to recurrence.
Having bad habits. This is the presence of alcohol and nicotine in the patient’s life, which reduce testosterone production. In this case, there can be no talk of impeccable physical health.
Irregular sex. When there is a change (decrease) in the intensity of sexual life, apathy towards sex appears. In psychology, there is the opposite effect, when intense intimate life with passion and numerous orgasms also leads to a decrease in sexual desire.
Age-related changes. We are talking about progressive andropause, which is difficult to correct even with medication, and is an irreversible change in a man’s body.
Other pathogenic factors. These are chronic diagnoses such as diabetes, obesity, hypothyroidism, thyrotoxicosis, which disrupt hormonal levels, undermine male libido, and reduce saturation and the severity of sensations during sexual intercourse.

This problem can also be diagnosed in the female body. The fairer sex is upset by the lack of desire, but does not fully understand the meaning of the word libido. Not only do women lose orgasms, but romantic dates along with sexual foreplay no longer bring pleasure or cause excitement. Here are the experts' recommendations:

It is recommended to include spices and pungency in your daily diet, which forcibly stimulate libido.
Increased physical activity at home or in the gym is another golden rule in order to get a high libido and a fulfilling sex life.
Sublimation of sexual activity also helps restore libido, get excited and feel the joy and satisfaction of sexual contact.
To increase a woman’s libido, she needs to increase her sleep phase and get rid of excessive physical and emotional stress.
Viagra and other medications with similar pharmacological properties can increase a woman's libido on the recommendation of the attending physician.

Drugs

Cialis. This medication perfectly helps to relax before sex, increases the sensitivity of the external genitalia and the severity of sensations during orgasm. The dietary supplement is available in capsules, and the course of treatment is determined purely individually.
Sildenafil. This is domestic Viagra for women, also produced in tablet form. The active components dilate blood vessels in the genitals, thereby providing stimulation and the release of natural lubrication. The package contains 4 capsules, which should be taken daily.

Food

The presence of spices, pungency and ginger is welcomed in the diet, since these are so-called “stimulants” of erection. In addition, the following food ingredients are recommended in the treatment menu:

meat and fish;
veal liver and kidneys;
sesame, poppy and pumpkin seeds;
corn and lentils;
any seafood;
greens (parsley, spinach);
fruits and vegetables.

Folk recipes

To increase sexual performance, many patients choose alternative treatments. The main thing is that the body is not allergic to plant components of natural composition. If contraindications and side effects are excluded, here are effective home recipes:

It is necessary to combine 30 g of dried rose hips and rowan, pour 700 ml of boiling water over the raw materials. Then leave it covered, strain, and take orally in the morning and evening for 2 to 3 weeks.
Grind calamus root and combine with medical alcohol in a ratio of 1:5. The composition must be infused for 2 – 3 weeks. It is recommended to take drops orally 3 times a day.

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The basis of libido is the level of hormones.

Libido primarily depends on the level of sex hormones in the human body. Males are called androgens, females are called estrogens. The main androgenic hormone is testosterone. If its level is insufficient, then the man will not feel sexual desire.

In women, the lack of estrogen leads to frigidity, when a woman simply stops thinking about sex over time. But sex hormones exist for a reason. They depend on many vitamins and microelements. First of all, these are vitamins A, B, C, magnesium, calcium, zinc.

Low levels of these substances in the body reduce the level of sexual desire. A person may not understand at first what is the reason for such a negative phenomenon. So, first of all, pay attention to food products that contain the above vitamins.

Increased libido

If a health problem already exists, you need to choose a so-called testosterone booster. It is recommended to increase libido in men with the participation of the attending physician, since superficial self-medication can become the main cause of impotence. Here are valuable recommendations from competent specialists:

To avoid problems with sexual activity, you need to take vitamins and perform training complexes for the prostate.
To increase libido, you need to ensure a full sleep phase, eat right, completely give up bad habits, and avoid stress and overexertion.
It would not be a bad idea to practice yoga and meditation, since lack of desire is often associated with internal conflicts and mental contradictions.
It is not recommended to take sedative herbs, tranquilizers, nootropics, since these medications can cause increased drowsiness and apathy.
If libidinal energy is reduced, in order to ensure high libido, it is necessary to undergo a course of drug therapy at home.

In men

Libido is enhanced by official and alternative methods, at home and in the hospital, without side effects. In both cases, increasing your own sexuality is required under strict medical supervision, and the following medications are recommended:

Sealex forte. The herbal dietary supplement contains active ingredients in the form of extracts of ginseng, licorice, yohimbe bark, and green tea. The natural formula has a beneficial effect on erectile function and increases sexual activity. Take 1 capsule with meals every day for 1 month.
Damiana. A herbal preparation from the category of dietary supplements, which is available in capsule form. The active components increase the sensitivity of the penis and locally stimulate blood flow in the pelvic area. Take 1 tablet with a meal for 1 month.

Libido - what is it

In fact, this term is responsible for increased sexual activity and male power. Libido characterizes the internal energy necessary to excite and sharpen the male’s instincts. This can explain the reason for the appearance of sexual desires, the natural physiological needs of the stronger sex. With physical and mental health, problems with sexual activity do not arise. Problems associated with sexual behavior indicate decreased libido, the need to promptly consult a specialist.

Libido according to Freud

Psychologist Sigmund Freud, who devoted most of his career to the study of psychoanalysis, insisted that the energy of sexual desire directly affects a person’s psycho-emotional health. In his opinion, libido stimulates male sexual power, psychogenic health, and provides creative potential. Reduced sexual activity causes mental disorders, leading to neuroses, irritability, lack of self-confidence and one’s own sexuality. It turns out that according to Freud's theory, libido determines human behavior.

Essays on the psychology of sexuality (collection)Text

III. Transformations during puberty

With the onset of puberty, changes begin that will transform infantile sexual life into its final normal forms.
Sexual attraction was previously predominantly autoerotic; now it finds a sexual object. Until this time, his actions proceeded from separate drives and erogenous zones, independent of each other and seeking a certain pleasure as the only sexual goal. Now a new sexual goal is given, to achieve which all private instincts act together, while the erogenous zones are subordinated to the primacy of the genital zone. Since the new sexual goal gives both sexes different functions, their sexual development takes different directions. The development of a man is more consistent and more accessible to our understanding, while a woman even experiences a certain regression. The guarantee of normal sexual life is only the exact coincidence of both currents directed towards the sexual object and the sexual goal, tender and sensual, of which the first contains everything that remains from the early infantile flowering of sexuality. It's like digging a tunnel on both sides. The new sexual goal in a man is to secrete sexual products; it is absolutely not alien to the previous goal - receiving pleasure; on the contrary, the maximum amount of pleasure is associated precisely with this final act of the sexual process. Sexual attraction now begins to serve the function of procreation; it becomes, so to speak, altruistic. In order for this transformation to be successful, it is necessary to take into account the initial predisposition and all the characteristics of the drive during this process.

As in any other case, when new connections and connections into complex mechanisms must appear in the body, here too the possibility of painful changes opens up due to the loss of these new organizations. All painful disorders in sexual life can rightfully be considered as developmental delays.

The dominant role of the genital zone and preliminary pleasure

We have clarified the starting point and the final goal of the described course of development. Intermediate transitions are in many respects still unknown to us; we will have to leave more than one mystery in them unresolved.

The most significant thing in the processes of the pubertal period was considered to be that which most catches the eye - the obvious growth of the external genitalia with a relative retardation of growth during the latent period of childhood. At the same time, the development of the internal genitalia has advanced so much that they are able to secrete sexual products or perceive them to form a new being. Thus, a very complex apparatus has been “manufactured”, waiting to be used.

This apparatus must be put into action, and observations show that irritations can reach it in three ways: from the outside world due to the stimulation of erogenous zones already known to us; from internal organs and in ways that have yet to be explored - from mental life, which itself is the repository of external impressions and the successor of internal excitations. All three ways cause the same state, called “sexual arousal” and manifested by two kinds of symptoms, mental and somatic. Mental signs consist of a peculiar feeling of tension of an extremely impulsive nature; Among the various bodily changes, in the first place is a number of changes in the genitals, which have an undoubted meaning, namely readiness, preparation for sexual intercourse (erection of the male organ, moistening of the vagina).

Sexual arousal

A certain type of tension during sexual arousal is associated with a problem, the resolution of which is as difficult as its enormous significance for understanding sexual processes. Despite the prevailing difference of opinion in psychology on this matter, I consider it necessary to insist that the feeling of tension should have in itself the character of displeasure. There is no doubt that such a feeling brings with it a desire to change the mental situation, stimulates action, which is completely alien to the essence of the pleasure experienced. If we classify tension during sexual arousal as an unpleasant feeling, then we are faced with the fact that it is, without a doubt, experienced as pleasant. Everywhere, pleasure is mixed with the tension caused by sexual processes; even with the preparatory changes in the genitals, a kind of feeling of satisfaction is clearly felt. What is the connection between this unpleasant tension and the feeling of pleasure?

Everything that relates to the problem of “pleasure - displeasure” touches on one of the most sore spots of modern psychology. We will try, if possible, to learn more about this from the conditions of the case before us, so as not to approach the problem in its entirety. Let us first pay attention to the way in which the erogenous zones are subject to the new order. When sexual arousal occurs, they play an important role. The zone farthest from the sexual object - the eye - in conditions of courtship of the object most often finds itself in such a position that it is excited by that special quality of arousal, the reason for which in the sexual object we call beauty. The virtues of a sexual object are therefore also called “charms.” With this irritation, on the one hand, pleasure is already associated, on the other hand, its consequence is that sexual arousal increases or is caused. If the stimulation of another erogenous zone, for example a groping hand, is added, then the same effect is obtained: on the one hand, sensations of pleasure, intensifying immediately due to the pleasure of the preparatory changes, and on the other hand, a further increase in sexual tension, quickly turning into a very definite unpleasant feeling , if he does not have the opportunity to deliver all new pleasure. Another case seems more understandable, for example, when the erogenous zone of a sexually non-excited person is irritated by touch, for example the skin on the chest of women. This touch already causes a feeling of pleasure, but at the same time, more than anything else, it can awaken sexual arousal, which requires an increase in pleasure. This is the problem: how does it happen that perceived pleasure causes a need for even more pleasure?

Pre-pleasure mechanism

However, the role that falls to the share of erogenous zones in this case is clear. What applied to one of them applies to all. The purpose of all of them is to bring a certain amount of pleasure thanks to the corresponding irritation: pleasure increases tension, which, for its part, should provide the necessary motor energy to bring the sexual act to completion. The penultimate part of it consists again in the corresponding irritation of the erogenous zone, the genital zone itself on the glans penis, through an object adapted for this purpose of the vaginal mucosa; under the influence of the pleasure that this excitement delivers, this time, by reflex, motor energy develops, which leads to the release of sexual secretions. This last pleasure, the most intense in its intensity, differs in its mechanism from the previous one. It is caused entirely by the resolution of this tension, represents complete pleasure from this satisfaction, and with it the tension of the libido temporarily subsides.

It seems to me that it is necessary to note this difference in the essence of pleasure from the stimulation of erogenous zones from the other - during the release of sexual secretions and give it an appropriate name. The first pleasure can be called preliminary pleasure

(Vorlust) as opposed to final pleasure (Endlust), or the pleasure of satisfaction. Preliminary pleasure is then the same as that provided by infantile sexual attraction, although to a lesser extent; the final pleasure is new, that is, it is probably associated with conditions that arose only with the onset of puberty. The formula for the new function of the erogenous zones is this: they are used in order to make possible the onset of greater pleasure from satisfaction through the preliminary pleasure received from them, as in infantile life.

Recently I was able to explain an example taken from a completely different area of mental activity, in which a greater effect of pleasure is also achieved due to a slight sensation of pleasure, which acts as a seductive bonus. Thus, the opportunity presented itself to consider in more detail the essence of pleasure[47].

The Dangers of Pre-Enjoyment

However, the connection of preliminary pleasure with infantile sexual life is confirmed by the pathogenic role that can fall to its lot. In the mechanism of preliminary pleasure lies a clear danger to the possibility of achieving normal sexual goals. This occurs when, at some point in the preparatory sexual process, the preliminary pleasure becomes too great and the corresponding tension too little. Then the force of desire to continue the sexual process disappears, the entire path is shortened and the corresponding preparatory act takes the place of the sexual goal. This case, as is known, is due to the fact that the corresponding erogenous zone or the corresponding private attraction already in childhood brought great pleasure. If these moments have already been recorded, then in the future an obsession is easily created that prevents this preliminary pleasure from subordinating to a new connection. This is, in fact, the mechanism of many perversions, which represents a stop at the preparatory acts of the sexual process.

It is easiest to avoid disruption of the functions of the sexual mechanism due to preliminary pleasure if the primacy of the genital zone is already predetermined in the infantile period. Preparation for this begins already in the second half of childhood (from eight years to the onset of puberty). During these years, the genital areas behave as they did during puberty; they become the site of sensations of excitement and preparatory changes if any pleasure is felt from satisfying other erogenous zones, although this effect still remains purposeless, i.e., does not contribute to the continuation of the sexual process. Thus, already in childhood, along with the pleasure of satisfaction, there is a certain amount of sexual tension, although less constant and complete. We can now understand why, when examining the sources of sexuality, we could just as rightly say that the corresponding process acts in sexual relations both satisfyingly and excitingly. Note that at the beginning of the study we imagined the difference between infantile and mature sexual life to be exaggeratedly large and are now making adjustments. Infantile manifestations of sexuality predetermine not only a deviation from normal sexual life, but also its normal form.

Problems with sexual arousal

It remains completely inexplicable where sexual tension comes from, which develops simultaneously with pleasure in satisfying the erogenous zones, and what the essence of this pleasure is[48]. The first assumption, that this tension somehow comes from pleasure itself, is not only absurd in itself, it is unacceptable, because with the greatest pleasure associated with the outpouring of sexual products, no tension appears, but on the contrary, all tension ceases . Therefore, the connection between pleasure and sexual tension can only be indirect.

The role of reproductive products

Besides the fact that under normal conditions sexual arousal ends only with the release of sexual products, there are other reasons to connect sexual tension with the release of sexual products. With abstinence, at regular intervals, the reproductive apparatus is freed from sexual products at night during erotic sleep in the form of sexual intercourse and accompanied by a feeling of pleasure. Regarding this process - nocturnal emission - it should be noted that sexual tension, which can find a short hallucinatory path to replace the act, is a function of the accumulation of semen in reservoirs for sexual products. At the same time, experience indicates the relative exhaustion of the sexual mechanism. In the absence of a supply of semen, not only is it impossible to perform sexual intercourse, but also the irritability of the erogenous zones disappears, the corresponding irritation of which cannot cause pleasure. Along the way, we thus learn that a certain degree of sexual tension is required even to stimulate the erogenous zones.

Thus, we have to admit, in my opinion, a fairly widespread point of view that the accumulation of sexual products creates sexual tension and maintains it by the fact that the pressure of these products on the walls of the organs in which they are contained acts as an irritation on the spinal center, the state of which is perceived higher centers and is reflected in consciousness as a certain feeling of tension. If stimulation of erogenous zones increases sexual tension, then the following happens: erogenous zones, which are in anatomical connection with these centers, increase the tone of excitation and, with sufficient sexual tension, activate sexual intercourse, and if insufficient, they cause the production of sexual products.

The weak point of this teaching, which Krafft-Ebing, for example, adheres to in his description of sexual processes, is that, created to explain the sexual activity of a mature man, it pays little attention to three kinds of circumstances that also needed to be explained. These circumstances apply to the child, to the woman and to the male castrato. In all three cases there can be no question of accumulation of sexual products in the same sense as in a man, which makes the simple application of the scheme difficult. Nevertheless, it must be recognized that it is possible to find facts that make it possible to subordinate the indicated cases to this doctrine as well. Still, one has to be careful not to attribute something to the factor of accumulation of sexual products of which it is apparently incapable.

Assessment of internal genital organs

Observations of castrated men show that sexual arousal can be largely independent of the production of sexual products, since there are cases when the operation does not affect libido, although, as a rule, the opposite behavior is observed, which is the motive for the operation. In addition, it has long been known that diseases that lead to the cessation of the production of male reproductive cells leave the libido and potency of an individual who has already become sterile intact. Therefore, it is not so surprising, as C. Rieger describes it, that the loss of the male gonads in adulthood can remain without any effect on the individual's state of mind. Castration performed at an early age, before puberty, although its effect comes close to the elimination of sexual characteristics, however, in addition to the loss of the gonads themselves, it is also necessary to take into account delays in the development of other factors associated with the disappearance of these iron

Chemical theory

Experiments on animals with the removal of gonads (testes and ovaries) and the corresponding transplantation of new such organs in vertebrates (see the cited work by Lipschutz) finally shed some light on the origin of sexual arousal, but at the same time further reduced the importance of the accumulation of cellular reproductive products. With the help of the experiment, it became possible to transform (Steinach) a male into a female and back a female into a male, and the psychosexual behavior of the animal also changed in accordance with and simultaneously with somatic sexual characteristics. But this sex-determining influence is not exerted by the part of the gonad that produces specific germ cells (sperm and eggs), but by its interstitial tissue, to which the authors attach special importance as the pubertal gland. It is very possible that further research will show that normally the pubertal gland has a bisexual structure (which anatomically justifies the doctrine of bisexuality in higher animals), and it is likely that it is not the only organ related to the formation of sexual arousal and sexual characteristics. If anything, this new biological discovery confirms what we already knew about the importance of the thyroid gland for sexuality. Suppose that special chemical substances are secreted from the interstitial part of the gonad, which enter the blood and charge a certain part of the central nervous system with sexual tension, as we know regarding the transformation of toxic irritation into special irritation of the organ by other toxic substances foreign to the body. How sexual arousal occurs due to irritation of the erogenous zones, with the same charging of the central apparatus, and what mixture of purely toxic and physiological irritations is obtained during these sexual processes - at present it is not even timely to build hypotheses about this. The essential assumption in this theory of sexual processes is that there are special substances that owe their origin to sexual metabolism. For this seemingly arbitrary hypothesis is supported by a conclusion that has received little attention, but which very much deserves it. The clinical picture of neuroses, which can only be explained by disturbances in sexual life, is very similar to the manifestations of intoxication and withdrawal symptoms that occur during the initial use of pleasure-giving poisons (alkaloids).

Libido theory

Our ideas and understanding of the mental manifestations of sexual life are in perfect agreement with assumptions about the chemical basis of sexual arousal. We have developed the concept of libido as a force that changes in quantitative terms, which can be used to measure all processes and transformations in the field of sexual arousal. We distinguish this libido from energy, which, strictly speaking, should generally be placed at the basis of mental processes, due to its special origin and qualitative character. Separating libidinal psychic energy from the other, we assume that sexual processes differ from the processes of nutrition of the body in a special chemistry. The analysis of perversions and psychoneuroses has convinced us that sexual arousal occurs not only in the so-called genitals, but in all organs of the body. Thus we have formed an idea of a certain amount of psychically represented libido, as we call it - I

-
libido
, the production of which, increase or decrease, distribution and displacement, should enable us to explain the observed psychosexual phenomena.

But the analytical study of this Self

-libido becomes available only when this libido has found mental use in order to become attached to sexual objects, that is, to turn into a
libido object
. And then we see how it concentrates on objects, fixates on them or leaves these objects, moves from them to others and from these positions directs the individual’s sexual activity, which leads to satisfaction, i.e., partial temporary extinction of libido. Psychoanalysis of the so-called transference neuroses (hysteria, obsessive-compulsive neurosis) gives us the opportunity to verify this.

Regarding the fate of the object-libido, it turns out that, being taken away from objects, the libido remains in a free state and finally returns to the ego

and again it becomes
I
-libido.

We also call
ego narcissistic
libido.
From psychoanalysis we observe, as if across a boundary which we are not allowed to cross, the whirlpool of the narcissistic libido, and we form an idea of the relationship between the two forms of libido. The narcissistic libido, or ego
-libido, seems to us to be a great reservoir from which attachments to objects emanate and to which they return;
the narcissistic attachment of the libido to the ego
seems to be an original state that took place in early childhood, only covered up by its later use, but essentially remaining unchanged.

The task of a theory of libido in neurotic and psychotic diseases would be to express in brief libido terms all observed phenomena and hypothesized processes. It is easy to understand that the fate of the libido will be of great importance in this case, especially in those cases where we are talking about explaining deep psychotic disorders. However, the difficulty in this case is that the method of our research, psychoanalysis, so far gives us correct information only in the transformations of the object-libido, and I

He absolutely cannot separate libido from other energies acting in
the ego
. Further development of the theory of libido is therefore still possible only through speculation. But if, following the example of C. G. Jung, the concept of “libido” is expanded too much, identifying it in general with the driving mental force, then in this case the gains of all psychoanalytic observations disappear.

The separation of sexual desires from others and at the same time the limitation of the concept of libido strengthened their position in the above assumption about the special chemistry of the sexual function.

Differences between man and woman

It is known that only with the onset of puberty is there a sharp difference between the male character and the female character - an opposite that has a greater influence on the entire structure of a person’s life than anything else. Innate masculine and feminine properties are clearly visible already in childhood: the development of inhibitors of sexuality (shame, disgust, compassion, etc.) occurs earlier in a girl and meets less resistance than in a boy: the tendency to sexual repression seems generally greater; where private sexual attractions manifest themselves, they prefer a passive form. But the autoerotic activity of the erogenous zones is the same in both sexes, and thanks to this similarity, there is no possibility of sexual differences in childhood; they appear after the onset of puberty. Taking into account autoerotic and masturbatory sexual expressions, it can be assumed that the sexuality of little girls is completely masculine in nature. Moreover, if we could give the concepts “male” and “female” a completely definite content, then it would be possible to prove that the libido is always - and naturally in its nature - male, regardless of whether it occurs in a man or a woman and regardless from your subject, be it a man or a woman

[49].

Since I became acquainted with the theory of bisexuality, I consider this fact decisive and in this case I believe that without taking into account the manifestations of bisexuality, it is unlikely that it will be possible to understand the actually observed sexual manifestations of men and women.

Guiding zones in men and women

Regardless of the above, I can only add the following: in a female child, the leading erogenous zone is located in the clitoris, therefore, it is completely homologous to the male genital zone at the head of the penis. All that I was able to learn about masturbation in little girls related to the clitoris, and not to the parts of the external genitalia that are important for subsequent genital function. I doubt whether a girl, under the influence of seduction, can achieve anything other than masturbation of the clitoris, unless in a completely exceptional case. The frequent spontaneous discharges of sexual arousal that occur specifically in girls are expressed in pulsating contractions of the clitoris, and its frequent erections give the girl the opportunity to correctly and without special explanation understand the sexual manifestations of the other sex, simply transferring the sensations of her own sexual processes to boys.

To understand how a little girl turns into a woman, we need to trace the further fate of this excitability of the clitoris. The period of puberty, in which the boy experiences such a large surge in libido, manifests itself in the girl in the form of a new wave of repression, especially regarding the sexuality of the clitoris. In this case, a certain portion of male sexual life is repressed. The resulting repression during a woman’s puberty, the strengthening of inhibitions on sexuality, irritates the man’s libido and leads to an increase in his sexual activity; with an increase in libido, sexual revaluation intensifies, which can only be fully expressed in relation to a woman who refuses and denies her sexuality. The clitoris then retains the role - when it itself becomes aroused when sexual intercourse is finally allowed - as a transmitter of this excitation to the neighboring parts of the female genitalia, just as a sliver of resinous wood is used to ignite more solid fuel. Often some time passes while this transfer takes place, during which time the young woman remains frigid. This frigidity can become long-lasting when the clitoral area does not transmit its excitability, which is prepared by the large (masturbatory. – Transl. note.

) activities in childhood. It is known that in most cases, the frigidity of women is only apparent, local. They are frigid at the vaginal opening, but are by no means unexcitable from the clitoris or even other erogenous zones. These erogenous causes of frigidity are also supplemented by mental ones, also caused by repression.

If the transfer of erogenous irritability from the clitoris to the entrance to the vagina was successful, then at the same time the woman’s zone, which plays a leading role in later sexual activity, has changed, while the man has retained the same zone since childhood. In this change in the governing erogenous zone, as well as in the wave of repression with the onset of puberty, which seems to eliminate infantile masculinity, in women lie the main causes of neurosis, especially hysteria. These conditions are therefore closely related to the essence of femininity.

Finding an object

While, thanks to the processes of puberty, the dominant role of the genital zone is established and the appearance of an erection of the male genital organ imperiously indicates a new sexual goal, penetration into the body cavity, exciting the genital zone, on the mental side there is a process of finding an object, preparation for which begins from an early age. childhood. When the very first sexual satisfaction was associated with eating, the sexual desire was for a sexual object outside one's own body in the mother's breast. Later it lost it, perhaps just when the child had the opportunity to get a general idea of the person who owns the organ that gives him satisfaction. Typically, sexual attraction then becomes autoerotic, and only after the latent period has been overcome is the original relationship restored. Not without good reason, the suckling of a child's mother's breast has become a prototype of all love relationships. Finding an object is essentially a secondary encounter[50].

Sex object during infancy

From this first and most important sexual relationship, even after separating sexual activity from food intake, there remains a significant part that prepares the choice of an object, that is, helps to regain lost happiness. During the entire latent period, the child learns to love other persons who help him in his helplessness and satisfy his needs, completely on the model of his infant relationship with the nurse, as if continuing these relationships. Perhaps many will not agree to identify the tender feelings and appreciation of a child that he shows towards his nannies with sexual love; but I believe, however, that a more accurate psychological study will prove that the identity of both feelings is beyond any doubt. The child’s communication with his nannies constitutes for him an inexhaustible source of sexual arousal and satisfaction through erogenous zones, especially since this nanny - usually the mother - herself has feelings for the child that come from the area of her sexual life, she caresses, kisses and rocks him and treats him in the same way as a full-fledged sexual object[51]. The mother would probably be frightened if it were explained to her that she was awakening the child’s sexual attraction with all her tenderness and preparing the future intensity of this attraction. She considers her actions to be a manifestation of asexual, “pure” love, for she carefully avoids causing more arousal in the child’s genitals than is necessary when caring for him. But sexual desire, as we already know, can be awakened not only by stimulating the genital area; what we call tenderness will one day certainly have an impact on the genital area. Even if the mother understood how enormously important instincts are for the entire mental life, for all ethical and mental manifestations, then even after learning all this, she would still feel free from reproaches. She only fulfills her duty when she teaches the child to love; let him become a real person with an energetic sexual need and let him accomplish in his life everything that this desire pushes a person to do. Too much parental affection can, of course, become harmful, since it accelerates puberty, but also because it makes the child “spoiled”, unable in later life to temporarily refuse love or be satisfied with less of it. One of the unconditional signs of future nervousness is the child’s insatiability in his demand for parental tenderness; and on the other hand, it is precisely neurotic parents, prone for the most part to excessive tenderness, who most likely, with their caresses, awaken the child’s predisposition to a neurotic disease. However, from this example it is clear that neurotic parents have a much more direct way to pass on their illness to their children.

Infantile fear

At an early age, children's affection and love for their nanny can be compared to sexual attraction. Children's fear is primarily an expression of the fact that a loved one is not nearby; therefore, they greet every stranger with suspicion and fear; they are also afraid of the dark because they cannot see their loved one, and they immediately calm down if they can hold his hand in the dark. The significance of all infant frights or creepy nursery tales is overestimated when they are considered the root cause of fear in children. Children prone to fear are receptive only to fairy tales that do not make any impression on other children, and children with a very strong or, due to pampering, sexual desire that is prematurely developed or has become too demanding, are predisposed to fear. In this case, the child behaves like an adult, turning his libido into fear when he is unable to find satisfaction, but the adult, having become neurotic thanks to an unsatisfied libido, behaves in his fear like a child, begins to be afraid when left alone, i.e. without a face in whose love he is confident, and he tries to calm this fear with childish measures[52].

Libido theory briefly

Libido is a person’s vital energy, which has sexual roots.
In the usual sense, libido is sexual desire, passion, lust. The term took its origin from the psychoanalysis of S. Freud and occupies a fundamental position in it. This term is required to describe various expressions of sexuality. Freud equated libido with Plato's concept of Eros and defined it as the energy of attraction to everything that can be encompassed by the word “love.”

The term “libido” is used to explain the causes of mental disorders, neurosis and to describe the course of mental development of a normal person, his scientific and artistic activity, and sublimation.