Effects of interpersonal perception

Dunning-Kruger effect

Effect related to the sphere of decision making. Defined as the following psychological phenomenon: people with a low level of qualifications make incorrect conclusions and make erroneous decisions, but cannot realize their mistakes due to their low level of qualifications. As a result, a lack of understanding of one’s mistakes leads to a conviction that one is right, sinless and superior. In practice, the Dunning-Kruger effect is expressed in the fact that more competent people tend to doubt themselves and lower their own self-esteem, but people with less necessary knowledge consider themselves to be high-level specialists.

Errors

There are many common perceptual errors that have a major impact on impression formation.

most common ones include:

we fall under the influence of evidence,
we are influenced by first impressions,
we perceive the interlocutor through comparison with ourselves and look for similarities,
we place more emphasis on negative character traits than on positive ones,
when our interests suffer, we tend to blame people rather than circumstances.

Under the influence of certain effects, false ideas about the interlocutor are formed.

Errors of perception can be an incorrect interpretation of the reasons, motives and incentives of the interlocutor. It may also be a misunderstanding of the meaning of the words he said and the actions he performed.

If the interlocutor put a certain essence into his statement, and the one to whom this statement was intended could not understand this essence, we can talk about a perception error.

In some cases, perceptual errors are not directly tied to the interaction.

For example, based on appearance or stereotypes existing in society, a person may attribute qualities to a person that he does not possess. A person can also ignore some of the interlocutor’s qualities (both good and bad).

Halo effect (halo effect)

The effect of mass communication, when a field of attraction and special attention arises around a political leader thanks to the media (due to the use of certain symbols and the positive assessment of famous persons). Due to the halo effect, there is an increase in authority, the popularity of a political leader supported by the popularity of other authority figures. Reactance effect The effect of mass communication, when an individual feels that some message is being formulated in order to influence him and perceives such a message as a threat to his own freedom, and accordingly, has an extremely negative attitude towards it.

Levels and types of perception

Definition 1
Perception is the process through which images of the surrounding world are formed, reality is reflected in the psyche.

A synonym for the word perception is the word perception, which translated from Latin means subjective, sensory knowledge of the environment. There are other words with equivalent meaning - acceptance, contemplation, appreciation, etc.

In the course of his life, a person constantly learns about the world around him; taking this or that thing in his hands, he can determine its color, density, weight, smell, etc. All these characteristics cause different sensations, which together give rise to the image of the object. This process of cognition will be the perception on the basis of which the subjective image of the object is formed.

Perception is the result of the activity of a system of analyzers. In psychology, perception is not only the sum of sensations, but also the individual knowledge of a person, his ideas about the world.

Note 1

The phenomenon of perception has a close connection with memory, thinking, attention, motivational sphere, and speech.

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Perception has four levels - detection, for example, a person’s ear perceives a signal, discrimination - a person understands that this signal is a sound, identification - a person determines what this sound is like from sounds familiar to him, recognition - assigning an image to a specific category , for example, is the booming children's laughter outside the window.

Each object or phenomenon of a huge and diverse world is perceived through different analyzers, but among them there is always one leader.

Perception is classified into several types: -

Perception is distinguished by modality:
- visual,
tactile,
olfactory,
taste.
According to the leading analyzer, the following simple types of perception are distinguished:
- kinesthetic type - sensations, movements with the help of which a person reads information.
a visual view in which the leading receiver is the eyes.

If you listen to how a person speaks, you can determine his individual type of simple perception. Each person sees the world differently, based on their abilities, and this is important for understanding each other.

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A complex type of perception combines two or more types of perception in different combinations - it can be visual-auditory, visual-motor-auditory, etc.

A special type of perception is a specific perception depending on the perceived object.

According to the method of actualization, perception can be voluntary or involuntary. If voluntary perception has its goal, then involuntary perception is caused not by a goal, but by the environment, for example, a neurologist taps a hammer on the leg to test a physiological response.

anchoring effect

The effect of mass communication.
The point is that we express all our assessments based on previously obtained information or certain elements familiar to us, even if they are not thematically related to the object of assessment. Such an anchor can be pre-set conditions, from which we begin to develop our own proposals. During voting, some piece of information about a candidate may be used as an anchor to influence our decision—even if it is clearly implausible—just because we already know it. An “anchor” can be an effective means of manipulation; on the other hand, condensed preliminary information on the substance of the issue can help in making an important decision. See also:

Barnum effect (or Forer effect) Anchor effect: the unknown Dunning-Kruger effect: anosognosia and blindness of the incompetent Encyclopedia of propaganda methods

1) the effect of the first impression (attitude), according to which a person’s appearance and behavior determines the presence of certain character traits. Communicating throughout life with various people, a person accumulates in his memory an impression of their appearance and behavioral characteristics. Long-term memory retains only a generalized image of these individuals. Subsequently, when meeting people who are similar in appearance, a person projects onto them his memories of those previously met, and attributes (correctly or incorrectly) to them those character traits that are included in the saved image;

2) the primacy effect (halo effect) - the first impression of a person turns out to be so strong that it can influence the formation of a stable opinion about him.

It is noted that if the first impression is positive, then we tend to filter out the unimportant negative qualities of this person, consistent with the first impression. The opposite happens if the first impression is negative. The halo effect can have both positive and negative effects in the process of perception;

3) the effect of novelty - information stored in the memory of the latter has a stronger influence on the formation of a person’s image and his assessment than the previous one, with the exception of the very first impression.

4) The effect of stereotyping - Any person, under the influence of society, the people around him and interaction with them, develops more or less specific standards, using which a person evaluates other people. The formation of these standards for the person himself most often occurs unnoticed: he may not even realize that he is forming certain standards. There are various classifications of stereotypical standards.

Classification of standards-stereotypes by V. N. Panferov:

1) anthropological;

2) social;

3) emotionally expressive.

Classification of standards-stereotypes (A. A. Rean)

1) anthropological; (example: people associate good nature with obesity)

2) ethnonational; (For example: “A German is a pedant”)

3) social status; (an experiment when the perception of height changes depending on the presented social status)

4) social-role; (Example: military-disciplined. Social status" is a “vertical”, hierarchical concept. “Social role” is primarily not a formal-hierarchical concept, but a content-functional one).

5) expressive-aesthetic; (determined by the dependence of personality assessment on a person’s external attractiveness (“beauty effect”)

6) verbal-behavioral. (associated with the dependence of personality assessment on external features (expressive features, speech features, facial expressions, pantomimes, etc.).

All these standards-stereotypes operate in conditions of a lack of information about a person, that is, when we are forced to judge a person by first impression

.Mechanisms of interpersonal perception

Projection consists of unconsciously endowing another person with one’s own motives, attributing to him experiences and qualities that are inherent in the evaluator himself.

A person also tends to attribute to others not only his own personal characteristics, but also the behavioral and motivational characteristics of another person.

Decentration . - a person’s ability to move away from his own egocentric position, the ability to perceive the point of view of another person. Decentration is not identical to the ability to take the position of another, to reason and act “like him.” However, special studies (D. Flavell) have shown that decentration is associated with the success of accepting another person.

Identification is a mechanism associated with the subject’s conscious placement of himself in the place of another, which acts in the form of immersion, a person’s transference of himself into the space and time of another person and leads to the assimilation of his position, motives, desires, etc. Identification is very strong and an effective mechanism for knowing another person. However, identification is not always easy. Another mechanism is closely related to identification— empathy.

Empathy is understood as understanding the emotional states of another person in the form of empathy. The ability to empathize is of great importance not only for the process of interpersonal cognition, but also for effective communication in general. Empathy is affective understanding

Reflection also complicates the process of understanding each other. In social psychology, the term means an individual’s awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner

Causal attribution is a mechanism of interpersonal perception, which means the process of attributing to another person the reasons for his behavior in the case when information about these reasons is absent. The measure and degree of attribution depend on two indicators: on the degree of uniqueness or typicality of the action and on the degree of its social “desirability” or “undesirability.”

Forms of perception and understanding of man by man:

1) analytical - common among artists and doctors, who associate every external feature of a person (eyes, hair, hands, etc.) with a specific personality trait;

2) emotional – the presence of personal qualities is determined based on the emotional attitude towards a person (mechanisms of novelty and primacy).

Most common among children and adolescents, as well as easily excitable people with imaginative memory and thinking;

3 ) perceptual-associative - attention is drawn to the external manifestations of a person, which are compared with images stored in memory, on the basis of which an assessment of this individual is given. This method is most often used by older people, actors, executives, doctors and teachers;

4) social-associative - the perceived person is evaluated due to existing social stereotypes.

Methods of socio-psychological research

NEMOV: In social psychology, all methods borrowed from general psychology are used, only they acquire specificity: if in general psychology an individual person is studied, then in social psychology, using the same methods, a group of people and the relationships between them are studied. Therefore, we can name all the methods of general psychology and briefly describe the specifics of their application in social psychology.

In social psychology there are a number of special methods, for example, these are all methods of studying small groups, incl. tests (for example, sociometric). Socio-psychological methods include methods for studying people’s social attitudes (with their help, various social-psychological _____ are studied).