Means of communication are techniques for encoding, transforming and decoding information transmitted during communication interaction. Communication means are divided into two large blocks: speech and non-speech blocks, i.e. verbal and non-verbal means of communication. Speech is the process of using language for the purpose of communication interactions between individuals. Language is a sign system, the main function of which is to ensure communication between people, thinking, and a method of expressing an individual’s self-awareness. Speech as a method of verbal communication acts simultaneously as a source of information and a method of influencing communication partners.
Language as a means of communication
The means of communication include, first of all, language, intonation of speech and emotional expressiveness, facial expressions and gestures, postures.
Language as a means of communication between individuals is closely interconnected with society, its culture and the individuals who live and work in it, while using the language in a varied and extensive manner.
Communication or communication is the transmission of any information from one individual to another for a different purpose. Communication is the result of the communicative interaction of two or more persons in specific circumstances and in the presence of a universal means of communication.
Language is considered the main means of human communication. The purpose of language to be a mechanism of communication is called its communicative function. By interacting with each other, individuals transmit their own thoughts, worldviews, emotions and emotional disturbances, mutually influence each other in a certain direction, and achieve a common understanding. With the help of language, subjects of interpersonal interaction understand each other. It gives them the opportunity to establish collective work in all areas of human activity. Language is the force that determines the existence and development of individuals and society as a whole. And the communicative function is the leading social function of language. However, it is far from its only function. Its specialized functions include cognitive, expressive, nominative and accumulative.
The ability to express information, broadcast it and influence the interlocutor is called the expressive function of language. This function is considered as the unity of expression and transmission of data, feelings and emotional experiences, and the will of the speaker.
The cognitive function is interconnected with the presence of human consciousness in linguistic signs. Language is a unique instrument of consciousness that reflects the results of a person’s cognitive activity. Linguistic disputes about what comes first, mental activity or language, will probably never stop. The only correct judgment is the statement that language has an inextricable connection with thinking, since humanity not only expresses its own thoughts in words, but also thoughts are formulated in the form of words - a person thinks in words. The cognitive function of the psyche is intended to record the consequences of mental activity and apply them in communication. This function promotes knowledge of the world and its verbalization.
A person thinks using categories, and in the course of cognition, he discovers and names new phenomena and concepts for himself, which is the nominative function of language. It has a close connection with the cognitive, since everything known must necessarily have its own name. It also has a connection with the ability of linguistic signs to designate things. It is this ability that allows an individual to create a world of symbols. However, in the modern world there are many things that do not have names.
The accumulative function is closely related to the collection and storage of information. After all, it is no secret to anyone that language has existed much longer than people and people. A striking example of this is dead languages that outlive their speakers. Language, regardless of whether it exists today or not, preserves the memory of generations and the centuries-old history of mankind. After all, even with the loss of oral speech, it is possible to master ancient writings and draw certain conclusions about the past life of a nation.
Language can also be spoken and written. The leading form of a language is its sound component. Unwritten languages may also exist. When there is only written recording, and no voicing, then the language becomes dead.
Communication functions
Human behavior and the development of his psyche occurs thanks to communication that fulfills its functions. So, for example, M.R. Bityanova highlights, first of all, its connecting role in any joint activity of people.
No less important is the formative or instrumental function of communication, which acts as the most important condition for the formation of a person’s mental appearance.
In the early stages of human development, communication performed a vital function, the meaning of which was to maintain life processes. With insufficient communication, a person’s physical condition noticeably worsens.
The next function of communication is the confirming or self-expression function. Here we are talking about the fact that in the course of communication people get the opportunity to learn and assert themselves. A person can establish his worth with the help of a fulcrum in another person.
Organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships is another function of communication. Maintaining various relationships with other people and their perception is associated with evaluating and establishing certain emotional relationships, which can be either positive or negative. There are such terms as “like-antipathy”, “like-dislike” with which you can express your emotional attitude towards another person.
The system of relationships between people is permeated with emotional interpersonal relationships, although this is not the only type of social connection. Quite often they leave an imprint not only on business relationships, but also on role relationships.
Another function is intrapersonal, which is a person’s communication with himself through internal speech, like a dialogue, and is considered as a universal way of thinking.
In addition to the functions highlighted by M.R. Bityanova, you can name a whole series of them. Among them are informational, expressive, regulatory, social control function, and socialization function.
With the help of the information function, information is received and transmitted, knowledge and skills are transferred.
The expressive function of communication means understanding the experiences of another person, his emotional state and, if necessary, changing this state.
When communicating, partners mutually influence each other, pursuing the goal of changing or maintaining behavior, activity, and relationships with each other, which can be done using the regulatory function.
The function of social control, with the help of group and social norms, regulates activity and behavior, using positive and negative techniques - approval, praise, censure, disapproval, etc.
The socialization function allows you to develop the ability to act in the common interests of team members and express a friendly attitude.
Nonverbal communication
The means of communication between people, as mentioned above, are verbal, i.e. associated with the human speech apparatus, and non-verbal (non-verbal). In situations of language deficiency (for example, lack of universal language means), interpersonal interaction may occur through nonverbal means. After all, through them humanity has been communicating since time immemorial.
Nonverbal means of communication appeared much earlier than language systems. That is why they are sometimes called natural, that is, given to humanity by nature, and not invented by people.
Non-verbal means of communication are: facial expressions, postures, various gestures, style of movement of subjects, etc. They replace and complement speech, convey the emotional mood of communication partners. The main detail of such communications is the human body, which has a wide range of means and methods of transmitting information and contains all categories of individual self-expression. Psychologists say that the correct interpretation of nonverbal signals is the main condition for effective communication.
Knowledge of non-verbal “language” helps not only to better recognize and understand a partner, but also to anticipate what impression the information he hears will make on him, even before the moment of voicing it.
Mimicry comes from the Greek word mimikos, which means imitating. Facial expressions are the movement of facial muscles. The main element of facial expressions is the facial code, which consists of a special combination of elements and components of the face. Such elements and parts include: the position of the lips and eyebrows, the shape and brightness of the eyes, which convey emotional states, etc. Psychologists have identified six main codes of facial expressions and a lot of nuances of the transition from one code to another. The main facial codes include: suffering, anger, fear, contempt, surprise, joy.
An additional important source of data about the mood and intentions of the interlocutor is the subject’s body, its dynamics or static state. Pose translated from French means body position. It means a more or less stable spatial position of a person. Today, there are more than a thousand such provisions, the satisfactory or unacceptability of which depends on the nationality, gender, age category, cultural characteristics and religious preferences of people. The main semantic essence of a pose as a means of communication is to express openness or closedness, readiness for communication or unpreparedness for it.
Gestures are divided into rhythmic, emotional, pointing and inventive. Rhythmic gestures are correspondingly associated with the rhythm of speech. They highlight logical stress, acceleration or deceleration of tempo, places of intervals, that is, everything that an individual usually conveys using intonation. For example, this could be: beating a musical beat with your foot, shaking your body or head, etc. Various shades of feelings convey emotional gestures. Most of them are fixed in stable combinations - phraseological units. For example: slapping yourself on your own forehead means an unexpected guess or memory.
To distinguish objects from a number of similar ones, to indicate their location and order, pointing gestures are used. Often speech without the use of a pointing gesture becomes completely incomprehensible. There are certain types of phrases that involve the use of pointing gestures. For example, please give me this book. You can point not only with your hands and fingers, but also with your gaze, nod of your head, or turn of your torso. Pointing gestures can be multi-valued, i.e. Under different conditions, similar gestures take on completely different meanings. For example, pointing your fingers at your wrist, where you usually wear your watch, can mean asking how much time is left until the end of a lecture, seminar, class, etc. or a hint that there is little time left or that you need to hurry.
When there is not enough time or there is no opportunity to quickly express your own thoughts, you can depict an object, phenomenon or action using figurative gestures. They enhance the impact on the interlocutor, while causing him to have a clearer and clearer understanding of the topic of conversation or the subject of speech.
Typical situations in communication are served by symbolic gestures. For example, you can greet a colleague with a nod of your head or a wave of your hand. Each of the symbolic gestures is selected in accordance with the situation and depends on the gender, age category, social role and status, and level of culture of the communicant.
Kinesic means of communication are the subject's movement style and gait. Research by psychologists demonstrates that the emotional state can influence an individual’s gait, as a result of which it is possible to assess the potential effectiveness of communication without approaching the interlocutor.
Nonverbal means of communication also include prosodic and extralinguistic means. Prosody in Greek means stress or refrain. That is, prosody is responsible for the rhythmic and intonation characteristics of speech, such as: volume and pitch of the voice, stress strength and voice timbre. Individual prosodic features in an individual are inherent in nature, but much can be corrected through systematic work. Extralinguistic means of communication are closely interconnected with prosody. These include: intervals, sighs, coughing, laughter, crying, etc. Prosodic and extralinguistic non-verbal means of communication regulate speech flows. They complement and at the same time save linguistic communications, replace and foreshadow speech utterances, and demonstrate emotional states.
Dynamic touches with the body, in the form of pats on the back, shoulder, knee, handshakes, kisses, are called tactical means of communication. The choice of one of the forms of tactical means is determined by many factors, such as: nationality, gender, age, degree of acquaintance, social status.
Proxemic means of communication consist in the distance that interlocutors use between themselves. Anthropologist E. Hall introduced the main comfort zones of interpersonal interaction. Their distance depends on the degree of proximity of individuals to each other.
Intimate distance is intended for communication between close people and relatives and is an interval from touch to 45 cm.
The personal distance is intended for communication with familiar subjects and ranges from 45 cm to 1.20 m.
Social distance is intended for official communication and communication with strangers and ranges from 1.20 to 4 m.
The public distance is intended for communication with the audience and ranges from 4 m to 7.5 m.
Violation of established boundaries in certain communication conditions can cause misunderstanding, misunderstanding and even lead to a conflict situation.
The oldest means of communication according to archaeological data
The results of archaeological research made it possible to find material evidence that in ancient human society active communication was carried out through information, propaganda, and persuasion.
The communication function was most clearly manifested in the activities of the emerging class of priests. First of all, the very fact of the appearance of sanctuaries (places for placing sacred objects and conducting religious rituals), as well as their separation from the rest of the settlement by a moat, rampart or wall, allows us to assert that the priests sought to emphasize their special position, surrounding themselves with an aura of mystery in the eyes of their fellow tribesmen. In the Trois Freres cave in the south of France, a rock painting of a sorcerer dressed in animal skin was discovered: such vestment was intended to convince members of the tribe that the “first ancestor” (in this case, a deer) continues to live among the tribe and serves as an intermediary between its descendants and the world of spirits.
Sacred rites and rituals were a kind of propaganda of ideas about the world order, life and death. For example, household items are found in burials: food and dishes, weapons and tools that the deceased might need in the afterlife. In addition to the purely sacred function, you can also see a demonstration function here:
sorcerers and shamans who performed such rituals not only saw off the deceased on their last journey, but also instilled in the living ideas of what awaited them after death. The settlements themselves were built in accordance with the most ancient models of the world order and were associated with astronomical ideas. Thus, even when building houses, people became involved in the propagated worldview, the “official ideology.”
Another direction of communication influence, also confirmed in archaeological finds, is the beginnings of ethnic (at the level of individual tribes) self-identification. In the settlements of ancient people, animal skulls are found, decorated with special symbols and ornaments: individual bones on stands and “pyramids of skulls.” The existence of such “monuments” suggests that people sought to emphasize their kinship with one or another ancestor (bear, elk, etc.) in communication with foreigners. Otherwise, there would be no need for them to create such “monuments”, since the members of the tribe knew very well who their common ancestor was.
In a similar way, the most ancient people sought to display their ancestral and family relationships: archaeologists of the Altai Mountains are surprised to note that the local ancient burials are chains of mounds, similar to the later family tree: the earliest ancestor opens the chain, the burials of the husband and wife are nearby, their children - further, etc. As in the case of ethnic self-identification, there is every reason to believe that this is a way of preserving and transmitting information not only within a family or clan, but also for an “external audience.”
In ancient society, representatives of various crafts were considered close in status to clergy. The sacredness of their status was emphasized by the application of sacred symbols to tools (for example, magical signs were found on pottery forges found on the territory of Ukraine), as well as the presence of their “workshop” special altars for sacrifices - an undoubted symbol of belonging to the priestly class. The importance of representatives of various professions was also reflected in the fact that the process of one or another work was depicted in rock paintings; in the Baikal region and Mongolia, images of the process of plowing as a kind of sacred rite were discovered.
The stratification of society into the ruling elite (leaders, priests) and ordinary tribesmen led to the need to emphasize their status even when seeing off to the afterlife. In the tombs of the most senior people, for example, horses are found buried with them, which are not in the graves of ordinary members of the tribe. Similar objects that distinguished representatives of different social classes, so-called social markers, were widely used in later societies.
As we see, already in the most ancient era, at the dawn of mankind, there was a fairly diverse system of ways to preserve and transmit information, create and promote an image. The means used for these purposes were predominantly visual, which is explained by the lack of language and verbal culture; at least, evidence of their existence in ancient human groups has not reached us.
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Verbal means of communication
The means of communication include mainly speech as a source of information, a way of influencing the interlocutor, communicating through words, and exchanging information.
Verbal means of communication are the interaction of parties through words, and are brought to life with the help of sign systems. The core among such systems is language. Languages as sign systems are the best means of expressing human mental activity and a means of communication. Language finds its own embodiment in speech. Thus, language is present in individuals in a stable state of possibility. The concept “speech” is used in several meanings. The first meaning is to present speech as one of the types of communicative interaction of an individual. Those. in this meaning, speech is the specific activity of an individual, which is expressed orally or in writing. Speech also refers to the results of activities that depend on the circumstances and objectives of communications. For example, business or official speech.
Speech differs from language in that it has specificity, uniqueness, relevance, activity, it unfolds in time and is carried out in space. Also, speech, unlike the language system, is much less conservative, but more dynamic and mobile. It reflects the experience of the speaking individual, is determined by context and conditions, is variable, and can also be spontaneous and disordered.
Each phrase plays one role or another in the course of communications - establishing contact, attracting interest and attention, broadcasting messages, etc. The particular roles of certain phrases can be combined into general ones, which are called the functions of speech.
The source of data in verbal communications is the individual who speaks or writes information. And the channel of information is the individual’s voice apparatus, which transmits the message. The code in cases of verbal communication is speech. At the same time, encoding is the transformation of information into language units, and decoding is the opposite process of understanding and understanding cues. The choice of code when broadcasting verbal communication, first of all, occurs automatically. Basically, this code is the native language of the speaking subject. However, along with this, the code can also be perceived as a means of encrypting information.
The next most important nuance of the verbal communication pattern under consideration is distortion and interference. Distortions may appear due to linguistic, extralinguistic and acoustic-pronunciation reasons or the graphic appearance of information in written communication. Distortions of a linguistic nature are associated with a lack of clarity of statements, incorrect syntactic formatting, excessive complexity of the message, etc.
Interference of an extralinguistic nature is caused by the “baggage” of knowledge of the message addressee. Also, many psychologists note that the protective mechanisms of the individual’s psyche select information that will correspond to the individual’s inclinations, and will not perceive information that contradicts the person’s point of view and views. To make information noise-resistant, any message should be slightly redundant. Redundancy of information is a complete or partial repetition of information, which is accompanied by the receipt of new messages and is intended to control and correct human ideas. It is believed that redundancy in communications should be no less than 50% and no more than 95% of the “baggage” of knowledge in the area under discussion.
An important feature of verbal messages is value, which is understood as new information obtained from the implementation of information content contained in a linguistic sign. Novelty and surprise determine the value of a meaningful message.
Dialogue and monologue communications are distinguished, depending on the direction of the speech flow during communication. Dialogue is a form of speech that contains an exchange of phrases and is characterized by dependence on speech conditions, conditionality of previous remarks, and a low degree of organization.
In verbal communication, a special position is occupied by the individual’s discovery and encouragement of the partner’s potential capabilities. The ability to speak beautifully and kindly has an attractive force and creates circumstances for the formation of relationships with subjects based on mutual disposition, which is necessary for a psychologically favorable climate in social groups.
Speech as a means of communication
The main function of an individual's speech is to support thinking. Speech is a kind of instrument of mental activity. It is a historically established form of communicative interactions through linguistic constructions. The word is the basic structural unit of linguistic systems. A word as a concept contains much more information and data than an elementary combination of sounds carries.
The process of forming thoughts with the help of words and their comprehension inevitably causes a deformation of the semantic load of the message. However, individuals still understand each other. Comprehension is invariably subject to adjustment, since the means of communication between people is not just the transmission of information, knowledge, messages through verbal and non-verbal tools, but the exchange of data, which involves feedback.
Replies without orientation towards the communication partner take the form of a monologue. When broadcasting messages monologue, the amount of information content loss can reach from 50% to 80% of the amount of original information. Psychologists say that the most effective form of communication is dialogue. It requires fluency and fluency in speech, the ability to distinguish sincere and honest answers from untruthful and evasive ones, and sensitivity to non-verbal cues.
The foundation of dialogical communications is the skill and ability to ask questions to oneself and other subjects of the communication process. Compared to monologue communication, dialogic communication is considered more effective. After all, it will be much more effective to transform your own ideas into questions and test them in conversations with comrades and colleagues. Using questions allows you to understand whether the speaker's ideas are supported or not. The very fact of the question shows the desire to take part in communication interactions, ensuring their further direction and deepening.
Any interaction is unthinkable without following the rules of verbal etiquette, which is associated with the forms and style of speech, vocabulary.
Broadcasting messages can take various forms. Information can be conveyed in the form of conversation, discourse, lecture, or even argument.
Speech as a means of communication is the main method of communication peculiar only to humans. It is mainly divided into internal - the individual’s mental conversation with himself, through which the motivation of his behavior is understood, and external, i.e. directed at the interlocutor. Inner speech is the foundation of external speech. The transformation of the essence of internal speech into externally directed speech is associated with the appearance of difficulty in speaking out loud. Externally directed speech can be oral and written.
Game as a means of communication
From time immemorial, play has been considered a universal means of learning, development and recreation. Play, as a non-productive activity of individuals, brings emotional excitement and pleasure from the process of free expression of the physical and mental powers of the individual.
A game is a kind of school of social relationships in which an individual comprehends the standards of social and cultural behavior.
Play as a means of communication is considered a fundamental activity not only for children, but also at an older age. Only by taking into account the individual age characteristics of a person can the game take on a slightly different direction. With its help, communicative abilities are developed and projected onto imitatively created circumstances of interaction existing in the real world.
Games not only contribute to the development and expression of one’s own communication skills, but also help to correct emerging problematic situations and communication difficulties. Understanding by individuals of each other is one of the most pressing problems that arise throughout the entire period of a person’s life.
Play as a means of communication allows a teenager to build a system of interpersonal relationships, personal interactions, and demonstrate his leadership qualities and abilities. It provides a solid foundation for children's further development. The game is a simulation of future situations, conditions, circumstances that individuals may encounter in real life.
The individual’s ability to make independent, independent decisions and defend his own position develops with the help of the experience of obedience acquired in games and playing out various social roles and situations. After all, the game is a continuous change of positions. The ability to behave correctly in certain roles forms in individuals adequate self-esteem, the ability to realize and perceive their real position in the system of communication interactions, which develops flexibility of perceptions and communications, empathy, and quick switching from one activity to another. During play, children seem to absorb the experience of communicative interaction of older comrades.
The game as a means of communication is aimed at developing one’s own point of view on various issues. It helps the child to convincingly convey the “justice” of his own position.
Development of means of communication
Verbal and nonverbal means of communication are developing in several directions. Organs are formed that are special means of communication, for example, hands, lips - this is, firstly. In the processes of ontogenetic development, the development of expressive configurations of movements occurs, namely, all kinds of gestures, pantomimes, facial expressions, etc. - this, secondly. Thirdly, there is the invention and use of sign systems, which are means of encrypting and broadcasting messages. Fourthly, there is the development and improvement of technical tools for storing, transforming and broadcasting information that are used in communication interactions between people, namely radio broadcasting, print, telephone, television, etc.
The transformation of the essence, tasks and means of human communications is historical in nature, while the development of communication in animals is due to the natural course of the biological evolutionary process.
Children already at 3 months show the ability to communicate emotionally with individuals, and by one year their expression becomes so rich and pronounced that it allows them to quickly comprehend verbal communication tools and use sound speech.
The development of means of communication occurs as speech is formed, which makes it possible to diversify the essence of messages transmitted and perceived during communication, and as a result of the progress of learning, the child begins to use different means of communicative relationships. As a result, the instrumental aspects of communication are enriched.
In the future, the formation of communication looks like a gradual accumulation by an individual of a culture of communication interaction based on reflection, feedback and self-regulation.
Communication structure
Definition 1
The structure of communication is a set of basic elements that form the communication process, while communication itself is the interaction of 2 or more people for the purpose of exchanging information.
In social psychology, the category of communication is basic and includes the transmission and reception of information, perception of a communication partner, and influencing him.
Communication is a system of social and interpersonal relations of a person. All living beings communicate with each other, but only at the human level does communication acquire perfect forms, become conscious and mediated by speech.
The structure of communication includes the following main components:
- subject,
- content,
- facilities,
- motivation and purpose,
- way of interaction,
- result.
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In inter-individual contacts, living beings transmit information or content to each other - this can be information about their emotional state - anger, joy, sadness, or internal motivation. People can also transmit information about personal needs, information about help, etc.
Information is transmitted in order to set up a living being or person for contacts.
The content of communication in animals can be very different - a signal about danger, about the presence of food, about someone’s presence, etc. Of course, in humans it is much broader and multidisciplinary. The number of communication goals among people is increasing significantly, and it is a means of satisfying social, cultural, creative, aesthetic, and cognitive needs.
Animal communication is defined as ways of encoding, processing and decoding information transmitted during communication. Information can also be transmitted through direct bodily contacts, touching the body and its other parts.
A person can transmit and perceive information at a distance using the senses. An important way for humans to transmit information is language, writing, and technical means of recording.
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Human means of communication are divided into groups:
- speech means, i.e. linguistic;
- kinetic means - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime;
- paralinguistic means, i.e. voice, its tonality, range;
- extralinguistic – laughter, crying, rate of speech, pause;
- spatio-temporal means.
The following phases are distinguished in the dynamics of communication:
- the need for communication and determining its purpose, what exactly needs to be achieved;
- the subject's entry into a communicative situation;
- orientation in the personality of the interlocutor and in the communication situation;
- planning content and means of communication;
- developing a position regarding a communication partner;
- interaction phase;
- assessment and perception of the interlocutor’s responses;
- adjustment of methods and communication style;
- leaving contact.
Note 1
Communication will be ineffective and will be ineffective if one of the links in the act of communication is broken.
