In this article, we invite you to consider one of the main techniques that include research methods in psychology. Observation involves purposeful and intentional perception of the object of study. In the social sciences, its application is most difficult, since the subject and object of research are people, which means that the results can be influenced by the subjective assessments of the observer, his attitude and attitudes.
Observation is one of the main empirical methods, the simplest and most common in natural conditions. For his results to be accurate, the observer must remain aloof, unnoticed, or become part of the group that includes the object of observation, blending in so as not to attract attention. The researcher must record and evaluate events related to the purpose of observation.
Elements of this technique include theoretical thinking (various methodological techniques, monitoring results, comprehension) and quantitative analysis (factor analysis, scaling, etc.).
When studying the basic methods of psychology, observation should certainly be noted and, if possible, applied. After all, this is one of the main techniques used by modern science.
It must be said that observation in psychology is necessarily somewhat subjective. The degree of subjectivity can be reduced by the rejection of quick conclusions and generalizations, repeated observations, as well as the use of other methods along with it. It is better for several observers to participate in the study. To increase the effectiveness of this method, various observation cards and questionnaires are often used. They allow you to concentrate on the most important points and not be distracted by unimportant ones.
Distinctive Features of Observation
Observation in psychology is always carried out for a specific purpose, according to a predetermined plan, and is equipped with various objects necessary to record the results and carry out the process itself.
This method allows you to collect empirical data, form ideas about the objects of research, and also test various guesses and theories associated with it.
Observation carries out cognition through direct contact, based on the readings of the senses, therefore it is the first scientific technique in history.
Methods of psychology (observation, experiment, etc.) have their own characteristic features. These features make it possible to distinguish them as a separate type of research. Observation in psychology is distinguished by the type of relationship to the object (for example, in a conversation or experiment, a specialist creates special conditions that cause this or that phenomenon), the presence of direct contact with it (which is absent when studying the products of activity, and is also not always present in the experiment).
From a methodological point of view, it is characterized by universality, that is, the ability to use observation in relation to a wide range of different mental phenomena, as well as flexibility (the ability to change the “field of coverage” of an object or hypothesis during the research process) and minimal requirements for the technical and hardware support of the procedure. In this, the methods of psychology, observation, experiment and others, are very different.
In the scientific literature, the terms "observation", "objective observation" and "external use" are often used interchangeably. Mental life is a complex phenomenon, inaccessible to direct view from the outside, hidden from prying eyes. Therefore, initially the only method of psychology was introspection (self-observation), and only with the development of science did external observation begin to be used when observing a person (psychology, sociology and other sciences).
In Russian psychology, the basic principles of observation are described in the works of such scientists as S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev.
Target
At the beginning of psychological observation, its purpose should be established ( the answer to the question “why observe?” ). Here are some typical examples:
- studying the properties of various mental phenomena;
- studying people as carriers of certain known mental qualities and comparing the results of observation with existing signs;
- studying the reasons underlying certain difficulties in all kinds of categories of people, in different conditions of activity and communication;
- study of the characteristics of people with different mental characteristics.
Depending on the goal, it can be expectant (everything that the object shows itself to be is recorded) and selective (the necessary phenomena and facts are selected).
The second method is much more practical, as it sharpens perception and makes one object stand out from the rest, which means it requires less time.
Types of objects
Observation and experiment in psychology, as well as other methods, can have the following objects of study:
- person (or animal);
- a whole group of people.
The subject of observation can, as a rule, only be the external component of activity (movements, movements, contacts, joint actions, speech acts, facial expressions, external manifestations of vegetative reactions, as well as various situations, both spontaneous and organized).
Application of the method
Introspection has no hard and fast rules regarding its application. There can be many ways. Methods of application:
- Fairy tale. An effective form of self-analysis is speaking your feelings and thoughts out loud. You can make up a story from them and tell it into a voice recorder.
- Writing a letter. You need to imagine a person who has caused a lot of inconvenience, insulted or humiliated, write a letter for him, which will contain only pleasant words. The text itself can be sent to this person or kept for yourself.
The main method of performing introspection is keeping a diary. You need to write down emotions, feelings, and thoughts that arise.
Self-observation is a method of studying mental manifestations, emotions, and feelings. It belongs to psychological practices, but is not recognized by all scientists. This is due to the main disadvantage of introspection - the inaccuracy of the information received.
Observation Rules
There are a number of rules when applying this method:
1. Systematic, repeated studies should be conducted in changing and repeating situations to highlight patterns and random coincidences.
2. You should not jump to conclusions; you should definitely make alternative assumptions about what is behind this or that behavior and test them.
3. Particular situations and conditions must be compared with general ones, considering them in the context of various communities (the individual as a whole, the general situation, the stage of mental development, for example, in relation to a child, etc.), since such consideration often completely changes the psychological the meaning of what is observed.
In order to minimize inaccuracies and errors in the research and ensure its objectivity, as already noted, it is necessary that the researcher does not give away his presence. It is necessary to make sure that the observer can see, while remaining unnoticed as a researcher. The peculiarities of observation in psychology presuppose the least possible participation of the subject in it.
This can be achieved by the following:
- “to become familiar”, that is, to make the object of study accustomed to the presence of the observer - to often be present in his field of vision, as if not paying attention to him;
- explain the presence of an outsider with some goal acceptable for the object of study, for example, tell a teacher at school that you would like to be present at the lesson in order to master its methodology;
- replace the observer with equipment that records mental phenomena (video camera, for example), which will provide accurate recording and will be less embarrassing for the observed;
- carry out the study from a dark room adjacent to the one where the observed are located, for example, separated from it by a special Gesell glass, with one-way light conductivity;
- use hidden camera footage.
The goal must be clearly defined, since only in very rare cases do random observations lead to important discoveries.
Methods
The choice of self-observation method depends on the person’s age. The child cannot fully describe his feelings and emotions, since he encounters many of them for the first time and does not know what they are called. At the same time, the child will tell more truth than an adult, who may want to hide information, characteristics of his own behavior, personal shortcomings, shameful actions.
For children
Self-observation for children is best organized in the form of a game. If a child does not know what certain feelings and emotions are called, you can make crafts with their image and sign what they are called. The adult should ask the child about his feelings, and the child should point out suitable crafts.
Also, if the child does not know how to describe his feelings, you can ask him to express them in the form of drawings, which will be studied by a psychologist depending on different criteria - lines, shapes, colors, the presence of additional elements.
For older children, it will be interesting to keep a personal diary. In it, the child will be able to record his experiences, negative moments, and features of communication with peers.
For adults
An adult can perform introspection regardless of time and place. When self-observing, you need to note the characteristics of the mental state, and not the physical manifestations of the body.
It is important to be impartial when introspecting. You can't cut yourself any slack. It is important to evaluate everything sensibly, not to hold anything back, and try not to lie to yourself.
Experienced psychologists advise first to speak out the feelings and emotions that bother you, and then analyze them. This makes it easier to perceive the current situation and difficult moments.
You can also first write down experiences, feelings, emotions on a separate sheet, and then analyze them separately. You can break them down into separate blocks and compare strengths and weaknesses.
If it is difficult to communicate with yourself on exciting topics, or there are any difficulties, you can make a list of questions in advance that will need to be answered. It is best to write down your answers so that you can analyze them after completing the personal survey.
Types of surveillance
Types of observation in psychology are very diverse. There is no comprehensive unified classification, so we will list only the main ones.
1. Systematic and random. Systematic is characterized by regularity and repetition throughout the entire period of study. The time intervals between observations are determined by external conditions and the nature of the object being studied.
2. Open or hidden. These types of observation in psychology characterize the observer’s position towards the object of study. For example, with hidden observation, the researcher looks through Gesell glass at the object of study, and with open observation, the observed one also sees the researcher.
As a subtype, this also includes participant observation, when the subject himself is a member of a group, a participant in events. Participant observation can be either open or hidden (for example, if the researcher does not disclose that he is such to other members of the group).
Some types of observation are intermediate between included and non-involved observation. For example, when a teacher studies the behavior of students during a lesson: here the researcher is involved in the situation, but differently than the objects of study, their positions are unequal in relation to managing the situation.
3. Field and laboratory. Field research is carried out in natural conditions for the observed and implies the absence of any initiative on the part of the researcher. This observation in psychology allows us to study the natural life of the observed object. Its disadvantages include labor intensity, as well as the uncontrollability of the situation by the researcher, and the impossibility of systematic observation. Laboratory research provides the opportunity to study an object in a controlled, convenient situation for the researcher, but can significantly distort the results of the study.
4. Longitudinal, periodic and single. These types are distinguished by the time of organization of the study. Longitudinal (“longitudinal”) is carried out over a long time, often several years, and also involves continuous contact of the observer with the object. The results of such a study are recorded in the form of diaries, which widely cover the lifestyle, behavior, and various habits of the object being studied.
Periodic observation is the most common type of temporary research organization. It is carried out over certain precisely defined periods of time. Single, or one-time, observations are carried out in the form of a description of a single case, which can be either typical or unique in the study of a particular phenomenon or process.
Code of Ethics
For the proper use and characterization of the observation method, one must follow the basic rules of psychology as established by the Code of Ethics of the American Psychological Association. The researcher must adhere to precautionary measures.
If the trial is carried out in a public place, it is not necessary to obtain the consent of the participants. And for individual research, you need to obtain the subject's permission . Psychologists must behave carefully and try not to harm others. If this cannot be avoided, it is recommended to reduce the damage.
Intrusion into the privacy of participants should also be kept to a minimum. But when observing the behavior of family members, you need to obtain their consent and explain the purpose of the task. If a person engages in self-observation, then he can study any area of his life. All data about the subjects remains confidential, psychologists have no right to disclose them. Only the results obtained can be published without indicating names, addresses and other personal information.
Observation stages:
- object selection;
- data registration;
- creating a plan;
- selection of information processing method;
- carrying out the procedure itself;
- interpretation of data.
At the first stage, the psychologist selects the object and subject, the time and place of observation. He then selects the most appropriate research method and records all the data. After planning and choosing processing methods, he proceeds directly to the observation itself. The results obtained are interpreted to produce a report.
Observation units, their registration
Units of observation are simple or complex actions of the object of study that are accessible to the observer. To register them, special documents are used:
1. Observation card. It is necessary to register certain characteristics in a formalized and often coded form. As the study progresses, several of these cards can be used, separately for each unit of study.
2. Observation protocol. Designed to record combined results in formalized and informal procedures. It reflects the interaction of observation cards.
3. Observation diary. Psychology often uses various observation logs. They are necessary in order to record the results of the study. They indicate not only various information about the object itself, but also the actions of the observer committed during the study.
When recording the results, various film and video equipment can also be used.
Observation Example
The observation method in psychology is well illustrated by examples. Let's look at a specific example where this technique is used.
For example, a military researcher needs to find out which military personnel are prone to various offenses, for example, money-grubbing, drunkenness, and violence. The objects of observation are newly arrived soldiers.
First, the researcher collects information about them through the officers of the units to which the research objects belong. This information can be obtained, for example, from those who accompanied new arrivals to the place of service from the recruiting station, through conversation, and analysis of documents. In this case, it is necessary to especially pay attention to the social environment in which the soldier grew up and was brought up (prosperous or dysfunctional, complete or single-parent family, belonging or not belonging to a group with negative value orientations), to his behavior (whether or not he was brought to criminal or administrative responsibility , the presence or absence of negative characteristics from work or study), on his psychological and physiological characteristics (character traits, level of development, etc.).
Next, the researcher notes potentially troubled soldiers by analyzing the information received.
At the same time, the observer determines special signs that make it possible to judge the tendency of objects to deviate behavior. It is believed that persons with deviant behavior include soldiers whose behavior does not correspond to the moral and legal norms accepted in this society. This could be, for example, a dishonest attitude towards official duties, disobedience to commanders, insulting colleagues, stubbornness, attempts to dominate, etc.
Based on these signs, researchers collect detailed information about all soldiers through mostly random observation, and then draw up a detailed research program.
The student identifies situations, categories and units of observation, prepares tools (protocols, cards, observation diaries).
Essence and purpose
Self-observation or introspection is an analysis of emotions, mental manifestations, behavior, feelings that a person conducts on himself. Anyone can perform self-analysis without any training or skills. It is important to be impartial.
When conducting introspection, various psychological aspects are analyzed:
- anxious feelings that interfere with leading a normal lifestyle;
- needs;
- decisions that need to be made in the near future;
- behavior, factors influencing its changes;
- relationships with others.
The general goal of introspection is to study oneself from the outside, analyze the characteristics of the psyche, and draw conclusions based on the information received. Self-observation allows you to get closer to different areas of the psyche that a person does not notice in everyday routine. When considering his feelings and emotions, an individual must understand the reason for their appearance.
Example of observation situations
The observation method in psychology is implemented using examples of typical situations, among which it is worth noting:
— Training sessions. During such activities, the general level of training, skills, knowledge, the degree of diligence of the soldiers is determined, the level of cohesion of the team as a whole, and the degree of its desire to acquire knowledge are revealed.
- Breaks, leisure hours. In these situations, the observer may be interested in the topics of conversation, the leaders and their influence on other participants in the dialogues, and the different opinions and points of view of the soldiers.
- Household work. Of interest here may be the attitude towards the work of those being studied, the various relationships between military personnel when performing household work, as well as leaders and subordinates. It is important to note that in the presence of large volumes of work, as well as in critical situations (earthquake, fire, flood), qualities such as endurance, determination, cohesion, and mutual assistance of team members are especially evident.
— Changing of the guard, divorce and service. In these situations, the degree of military training, the level of skills and abilities, motivation to perform duties, and the beliefs of the soldiers are revealed.
- Evening verification. Here you can pay attention to general discipline, the reaction of the military to official duties and their distribution.
A special role is played by various conflict situations, in which the relationships between soldiers and their behavior are most clearly manifested. It is important to note the instigators, as well as indicate the causes, dynamics and outcome of the conflict, and determine the roles of the various participants.
Observation in educational psychology
This type of research is used mainly in studying the behavioral characteristics of students and teachers and the style of their activities. Here it is important to comply with two basic conditions: the observed person should not know what is the object of the study; the researcher should not interfere with the activities of the observed.
Observation in social psychology should be carried out according to a pre-developed program. It is necessary to record only those manifestations of object activity that correspond to the tasks and goals of the research being conducted. It is best to use video recording, as it allows you to study phenomena repeatedly and ensures maximum reliability of the conclusions obtained.
In educational psychology, non-participant observation is mainly used, but sometimes included observation can be carried out, allowing the researcher to experience first-hand what experiences those being observed experience. However, one should especially strive to maintain objectivity.
Introspection
The self-observation method is used both to obtain information and to independently correct changes. At the same time, group methods of analytical analysis, which are called cognitive behavioral therapy, are popular.
This new direction is based on self-reflection and subsequent changes in accordance with the results. To carry out this method, the psychologist must explain to the subject or patient the basic principles and methods of self-observation: how to keep records of changes in condition, what to pay attention to.
At the same time, the role of constant monitoring and interaction with the researcher increases, which will reduce the quality of the results if this method is used to obtain new scientific information.
The old method of psychological research has not lost its relevance , but has acquired new opportunities in the form of expanding the means of processing results.
This technique can also be used as therapy and as part of other types of research. This method meets all the requirements both as a scientific way of obtaining information and as a means of self-control in everyday life.
Source
Observation in developmental psychology
Here it can be either continuous or selective. If observation covers many aspects of the observed behavior simultaneously, over a long period of time, and is carried out in relation to either one or several children, it is called continuous. In this case, some selectivity is often noted: novelty is the selection criterion. When carrying out selective observation, only one specific aspect of the behavior of the child being studied is indicated and assessed, or his behavior in separate, specific situations, at certain intervals of time (the following examples implement such observation in psychology: C. Darwin observed the manifestation of emotions of his son, and the domestic linguist A. N. Gvozdev recorded the speech of his child during the first eight years of his life).
The value of this technique in developmental psychology is that for the application of this method there are no age restrictions for the object being studied. Tracking the life of the observed person over a long period of time allows us to find turning points, critical periods in his development.
Observation in psychology, examples of which we have just indicated, is most often used here to collect data at the initial stage of research. But sometimes it is used as the main method.
Where is it used?
The observational method has the widest application in scientific and everyday activities. It is used for :
- descriptions of the current psychological situation in the team,
- analysis of basic personality characteristics,
- conducting an experiment to obtain descriptive data,
- independent use within the framework of self-observation,
- behavior control,
- monitoring the effectiveness of therapy or correction techniques,
- obtaining a database for drawing up a scientific or scientific hypothesis,
- processing the results of psychological research.
The variety of possible uses unifies this method, which is used in all sections: from occupational psychology to Gestalt therapy.
