Humanistic approach
In the first half of this century, behaviorist and psychoanalytic approaches predominated in psychology. In 1962, a group of psychologists founded the Association for Humanistic Psychology. They proposed humanistic psychology as a “third force”, forming provisions alternative to the other two approaches. In defining its mission, the association adopted 4 principles as its basis:
1. Human experiences are of primary interest. People are not just objects of research. They should be described and explained by their own subjective views of the world, their self-perception and self-esteem. The fundamental question that everyone must face is: “Who am I?” To find out how an individual is trying to answer it, the psychologist must become his partner in the search for the meaning of existence.
2. Priority areas of research are human choice, creativity and self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists reject the psychoanalytic approach, believing that a psychology based on distorted personalities can only be a distorted psychology. They also reject behaviorism as a psychology that denies consciousness and is based primarily on the study of lower organisms. People are not simply motivated by organic needs such as sex and aggression, or physiological needs such as hunger and thirst. They have a need to develop their potential and abilities. The criteria for mental health should be growth and self-actualization, not just ego control or adaptation to the environment.
3. Meaningfulness must precede objectivity in the selection of research tasks. Humanistic psychologists believe that psychological research is too often guided by the methods available rather than by the importance of the problem under study. They say that important human and social problems must be studied, even if this sometimes means using less rigorous methods. Although psychologists should try to be objective when collecting and interpreting observations, their choice of research topics can and should be guided by value criteria. In this sense, research is not value-free; psychologists should not pretend that values are something they do not have or for which they must apologize.
4. The highest value belongs to human dignity. People are basically good. The purpose of psychology is to understand people, not to predict or control them. Many humanistic psychologists believe that even calling a person a “test subject” is to demean his dignity as a full partner in the quest to understand the person’s personality.
Psychologists who share the values of this association come from different theoretical platforms. For example, Gordon Allport was also a humanistic psychologist, and we have already noted that some psychoanalysts, such as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Erik Erikson, held humanistic views of motivation that differed from Freud's. But it was the views of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that took center stage in the humanistic movement.
Carl Rogers. Like Freud, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed his theory from work with clinical patients (Rogers, 1951, 1959, 1963, 1970). Rogers was struck by the inner tendency he observed in individuals to move toward growth, maturation, and positive change. He became convinced that the main force motivating the human body is the tendency to actualize all the body's abilities. A growing organism strives to realize its potential within the limits of its heredity. A person may not always clearly see which actions lead to growth and which lead to regression. But when the path is clear, the individual chooses to grow rather than regress. Rogers did not deny that there are other needs, including biological ones, but he considered them auxiliary to the improvement motive.
<Fig. Carl Rogers believed that individuals have an innate tendency to grow, achieve maturity, and experience positive change. He called this tendency the tendency towards actualization.>
Rogers' belief in the primacy of actualization forms the basis of his non-directive, client-centered therapy. This psychotherapeutic method assumes that each individual has the motive and ability to change and that the individual himself is most competent to decide in which direction these changes should occur. In this case, the psychotherapist plays the role of a probing system, and the patient explores and analyzes his problems. This approach differs from psychoanalytic therapy, in which the therapist analyzes the patient's history to identify the problem and develop a course of treatment (see Chapter 16 for a discussion of different approaches to psychotherapy).
"I" . Central to Rogers' theory of personality is the concept of "I". “I” or “the concept of self” (for Rogers these terms are used interchangeably) became the cornerstone of his theory. The “I” includes all the ideas, perceptions and values that characterize the “I”; it includes the awareness of “what I am” and “what I can.” This perceived “I”, in turn, influences a person’s perception of both the whole world and his behavior. For example, a woman who sees herself as strong and competent perceives and acts on the world very differently than a woman who sees herself as weak and worthless. The “concept of self” does not necessarily reflect reality: a person can be very successful and respected and still consider himself a failure.
According to Rogers, the individual evaluates each of his experiences from the point of view of his “concept of self.” People want to behave in ways that fit their self-image; sensations and feelings that are not consistent with the self-image pose a threat, and their access to consciousness may be blocked. This is essentially the same Freudian concept of repression, but for Rogers such repression is neither inevitable nor permanent (Freud would say that repression is inevitable and that some aspects of an individual's experiences remain in the unconscious forever).
The more areas of experience a person denies because they do not correspond to his “concept of self,” the deeper the gap between self and reality and the greater the possibility of maladjustment. An individual whose “concept of self” does not correspond to his personal feelings and experiences has to defend himself from the truth, since the truth leads to anxiety. If this discrepancy becomes too great, defenses can break down, leading to severe anxiety and other emotional disturbances. In a well-adjusted person, on the contrary, the “concept of self” is consistent with thoughts, experiences and behavior; The “I” is not rigid, it is flexible and can change as it masters new ideas and experiences.
In Rogers' theory there is another “I” - the ideal one. We all have an idea of what we would like to be. The closer the ideal “I” is to the real one, the more fulfilling and happy a person becomes. A large discrepancy between the ideal and real “I” makes a person unhappy and dissatisfied. Thus, two types of incongruity can develop: one between the self and experienced reality, the other between the self and the ideal self. Rogers has made several hypotheses about the development of these inconsistencies. In particular, he believed that people began to function more fully if they cultivated an unconditional positive attitude. This means that they feel valued by their parents and others, even though their feelings, attitudes, and behavior are less than ideal. If parents offer only a conditionally positive attitude, appreciating the child only when he behaves, thinks or feels correctly, the child’s “concept of self” is disrupted. For example, feelings of competition and hostility towards a younger brother or sister are natural, but parents do not allow them to hit and usually punish them for such actions. The child must somehow integrate this experience into his “concept of self.” He may decide that he is doing something wrong and feel ashamed. He may decide that his parents don't love him and therefore feel rejected. Or he may deny his feelings and decide that he does not want to hit the baby. Each of these relationships contains a distortion of the truth. The third alternative is the easiest for the child to accept, but by doing so, he denies his real feelings, which then become unconscious. The more a person is forced to deny his own feelings and accept the values of others, the more uncomfortable he feels. The best way for parents to do so is to acknowledge the child's feelings as they are, but explain why hitting is unacceptable.
<Fig. According to Rogers, people are likely to function more effectively if they receive unconditional positive evaluation—that is, if they feel that their parents value them regardless of their feelings, attitudes, or behavior.>
Dimensions of correspondence between the real and ideal selves. In Chapter 12, we described an assessment method called Q-classification, in which the assessor, or sorter, is given a set of cards, each containing statements about a personality (for example, “cheerful”), and asked to characterize the individual's personality by sorting the cards into piles. The evaluator puts cards with statements that are less characteristic of a given individual in a pile on the left, and with more characteristic ones on the right. Other statements are distributed into piles between them; Thus, each Q-component is assigned an indicator according to the pile in which it is placed. Q-classifications can be compared with each other by calculating the correlation between the indicators, thereby assessing how close the two Q-classifications are to each other.
Carl Rogers was the first to use the Q classification as a tool for studying the “concept of self.” The Q-set compiled by Rogers includes, for example, the following statements: “I am satisfied with myself,” “I have warm emotional relationships with others,” and “I do not trust my emotions.” In Rogers' procedure, the individual first sorts for himself as he actually is - for the real "I", then for the one he would like to be - the ideal "I". The correlation between these two sorts shows the discrepancy between the real and ideal self. A low or negative correlation corresponds to a large actual-ideal discrepancy, indicating a feeling of low self-esteem and low personal worth.
By repeating this procedure several times during therapy, Rogers could evaluate the effectiveness of the therapy. In one study, the correlation between actual and ideal classifications of help-seeking individuals averaged 2.01 before treatment and 0.34 after treatment. The correlation was unchanged in a matched control group that did not receive therapy (Butler & Haigh, 1954). In other words, for these individuals, therapy significantly reduced the perceived discrepancy between their actual and ideal selves. Note that this could happen in two ways: the individual could change his idea of the real self so that it becomes closer to the ideal self, or he could change his idea of the ideal self so that it becomes more realistic. Therapy can cause both of these types of changes.
Abraham Maslow. The psychology of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) echoes the psychology of Carl Rogers in many ways. Maslow first became interested in behaviorism and conducted research on sexuality and dominance in primates. He was already moving away from behaviorism when his first child was born, after which he noted that anyone observing a child could not be a behaviorist. He was influenced by psychoanalysis, but over time he began to criticize its theory of motivation and developed his own. In particular, he proposed a hierarchy of needs, rising from basic biological needs to more complex psychological motives that become important only after basic needs are satisfied (Figure 13.4). The needs of one level must be at least partially satisfied before the needs of the next level begin to significantly determine actions. If food and security are difficult to obtain, then the satisfaction of these needs will dominate a person's actions and higher motives will not have much importance. Only when organic needs can be easily satisfied will the individual have time and energy for aesthetic and intellectual interests. Artistic and scientific endeavors do not thrive in societies where people must struggle for food, shelter, and safety. The highest motive - self-actualization - can be realized only after all other needs are satisfied.
7. Self-actualization needs: find self-realization and realize your potential.
6. Aesthetic needs: symmetry, order, beauty.
5. Cognitive needs: to know, understand, explore.
4. Self-esteem needs: to achieve, to be competent, to receive approval and recognition.
3. The need for intimacy and love: to be attached to others, to be accepted, to belong to someone.
2. Security Need: To feel protected and safe.
1. Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, etc.
Rice. 13.4. Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Needs lower in the hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied before needs higher in the hierarchy become significant sources of motivation (according to Maslow, 1970).
Maslow decided to study self-actualizers—men and women who have achieved extraordinary use of their potential. He began by studying the lives of prominent historical figures such as Spinoza, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Jane Addams, Albert Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt. [Jefferson Thomas - third President of the United States, primary author of the Declaration of Independence; Jane Addams - American social reformer and pacifist, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for 1931 (shared with Nicholas Murray Butler); Roosevelt Anna Eleanor - diplomat, humanitarian, wife of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. — Approx. transl.] In this way he was able to create a composite portrait of a self-actualizer. The distinctive characteristics of such people are listed in table. 13.1 along with some of the behaviors that Maslow believed could lead to self-actualization.
<Fig. Albert Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt were among the people Maslow classified as self-actualizers.>
Table 13.1. Self-actualization
Characteristics of self-actualizers
Perceive reality productively and are able to withstand uncertainty
Accept themselves and others as they are
Relaxed in thought and behavior
Focused on tasks, not on yourself
Have a good sense of humor
Very creative people
Resist being absorbed into the culture, but do not intentionally behave unusually
Concerned about the well-being of humanity
Able to deeply appreciate the basic experiences of life
Establish deep, satisfying interpersonal relationships with few people
Able to look at life objectively
Behaviors that lead to self-actualization
Experience life like a child, with complete immersion and concentration
Trying something new rather than following the safe and secure path
When evaluating your own experience, listen to your feelings, and not to traditions, authority or the opinion of the majority
Be honest, avoid pretentiousness or flirtation
Be prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority
To take responsibility
Work hard if you decide to take on a task
Try to recognize your safe niches and have the courage to abandon them
(The table lists the personal qualities that Maslow considered characteristic of self-actualizers and the types of behaviors that he considered important for self-actualization (after Maslow, 1967).)
Maslow conducted his research on a group of college students. After selecting students who fit his definition of self-actualizers, Maslow found that this group belonged to the healthiest portion (1%) of the population; these students showed no signs of maladjustment and made effective use of their talents and abilities (Maslow, 1970).
Many people experience transient moments of self-actualization, which Maslow called peak sensations. The peak sensation is characterized by an experience of happiness and fulfillment; This is a temporary, calm, non-self-directed experience of perfection and an achieved goal. Peak sensations can occur with different intensities and in different contexts: in creative activity, while admiring nature, in close relationships with others, parenting, aesthetic appreciation, or participation in athletic competitions. After asking many college students to describe something close to the sensation of a peak, Maslow tried to summarize their responses. They talked about integrity, perfection, liveliness, uniqueness, lightness, self-sufficiency and the value of beauty, goodness and truth.
Humanistic psychology, humanistic direction
Humanistic psychology (from the English humanistic psychology) is a direction in Western, mainly American, psychology, formed in the 1960s. XX century, within the framework of the humanistic approach. The humanistic approach appeared as a response and opposition to the administrative-authoritarian, impersonal approach to man that dominated at the beginning of the 20th century (See the article by N.I. Kozlov, Boundaries of Humanistic Psychology and the Requirements of Realistic Psychology).
On the other hand, humanistic psychology rather joined the humanitarian wing of psychology and largely opposed itself to the natural science approach.
Movie "Healer Adams"
Adams's speech is not academic. This is an everyday, spiritual, human approach, and this is its strength.
It is difficult to formulate the views and principles of humanistic psychology in any strict way; humanists are not inclined to formulate clearly.
The origins of the ideas of humanistic psychology are in the philosophical traditions of the humanists of the Renaissance, the French Enlightenment, German romanticism, the philosophy of Feuerbach, Nietzsche, Husserl, Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, as well as in modern existentialism and Eastern philosophical and religious systems.
However, she is close to the views that a person is integral and should be studied in his entirety, each person is unique, therefore the analysis of individual cases (case study) is no less justified than statistical generalizations. Compared to behaviorism, humanistic psychology believes that a person has a certain degree of freedom from external determination due to the meanings and values that guide his choices. In contrast to psychoanalysis, from which there was also a clear distancing, the views of humanistic psychology on man are very positive: according to the ideas of its representatives, man is an active, intentional, creative being with the potential for continuous development and self-realization. Closeness to existentialism was expressed in the postulate that human life should be considered as a single process of human formation and existence, while a person’s experience of the world and himself in the world is the main psychological reality. Here, obviously, humanistic psychology adjoins the phenomenological approach, moving away from the behavioral approach.
To a lesser extent, humanistic psychology managed to oppose itself to psychotherapeutic work: despite the call of one of its founders, A. Maslow, to study psychologically healthy, mature, creatively active people, humanistic psychology still found its main application in psychotherapy. The main area of practical application of humanistic psychology today is psychotherapeutic practice : non-directive psychotherapy by C. Rogers (a person-centered approach to psychotherapy) and logotherapy by W. Frankl are among the most popular and widespread psychotherapeutic systems. Another important area of practical application of humanistic psychology is humanistic pedagogy, which is based on the principles of non-directive interaction between teacher and student and is aimed at developing the creative abilities of the individual. The third area of practical application of humanistic psychology is socio-psychological training, one of the founders of which was C. Rogers.
Today, humanistic psychology occupies an important and stable place in Western psychology; There have been trends toward its partial integration with other schools and directions, including psychoanalysis and neobehaviorism.
Humanistic psychology and the Synton approach
Together with Abraham Maslow, the synton approach aims to explore the highest levels of personal development and mental health, and self-actualization of the individual is one of the values of the synton approach. The Synton approach implements the view proposed by Carl Rogers, according to which the best results in personal growth are achieved when working positively, in the format of supporting the best intentions and aspirations of the individual. Look
Criticism of humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychology has its critics.
K. Benson shows the ethnocentrism of the concept of self-actualizing personality and the hidden immoral consequences of its use in cultures other than Western ones. His conclusion: “This is an acultural, ahistorical psychology in full self-confidence flight under the camouflage of historical references” [Benson, 2001, p. 227].
B.S. Bratus also believes that humanistic psychology, despite its name, is non-moral - it is “the psychology of the self as a human end in itself” [Bratus, 1997, p. 12]. Referring to V. Frankl, he emphasizes that “self-actualization aimed at oneself means a failure in the main thing,” since “the central, meaning-forming characteristic of a person is his way of relating to another person” [Bratus, 1997, p. 8].
