ADAPTATION
(
Late Latin adaptatio - adaptation
) - adaptation of a living organism to constantly changing conditions of existence in the external environment, developed in the process of evolutionary development. Without adaptation, it would be impossible to maintain normal life activity and adapt to various environmental factors: climatic and temperature (see Acclimatization), hypoxia (see Adaptation to altitude), weightlessness (see), the effects of infectious agents on the body (see Immunity ) and so on. Adaptation is of great vital importance for the human body and animals, allowing not only to endure significant and sudden changes in the environment, but also to actively rearrange one’s physiological functions and behavior in accordance with these changes, sometimes even ahead of them.
Thanks to adaptation, the constancy of the internal environment of the body is maintained (see Homeostasis), such blood constants as acid-base balance, osmotic pressure, and others.
Under conditions of excessive or prolonged exposure to factors unfavorable for the body, significant deviations of constants beyond acceptable limits may occur, which leads to disruption of the normal course of physiological functions and the development of a pathological process.
In addition to maintaining the constants of the internal environment through adaptation, the restructuring of various functions of the body is carried out, ensuring its adaptation to physical, emotional and other stress.
Adaptation can lead to changes in behavior, which is especially clearly demonstrated in the example of animals that hibernate under unfavorable living conditions.
In the processes of adaptation of highly developed organisms, in addition to the central nervous system, the sympathetic-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary systems take a large part.
When pathological conditions occur, adaptation plays a significant role in the development of various compensatory changes in the body, protective mechanisms that counteract the disease.
In contrast to adaptation in the broad sense, the term “adaptation” is used to designate the process of changing the level of sensitivity of a particular analyzer (see) under the influence of adequate stimulation - the so-called physiological adaptation (see Visual adaptation, Auditory adaptation). In this case, adaptation is a complex sum of processes occurring both in receptors (see) and in central neural structures. Adaptation can be expressed either as a decrease or an increase in sensitivity. The latter is sometimes called sensitization. Thus, the sensitivity of the eye to light in the dark increases, and when exposed to light it decreases.
Physiological adaptation
One type of physiological adaptation is receptor adaptation, expressed in a decrease in the frequency of impulses in the outgoing afferent fiber, despite the constant action of the stimulus. The time during which this reduction in impulse frequency occurs, or the rate of adaptation, is different for different receptors and for the same class of receptors located in organs with different functions (aortic wall, bladder wall.
Muscle spindle receptors adapt within a few minutes, skin tactile receptors - within a few seconds, Pacinian corpuscles located in the mesentery - within a few milliseconds. The baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and aortic arch also adapt with constant stimulation. With periodic stimulation, they signal a change in blood pressure, which is a necessary condition for its constancy.
The mechanism of receptor adaptation is complex. Since the basis of the receptor’s activity is the generator potential, which irritates the nerve endings and causes a discharge of impulses, the adaptation of the receptors depends on the accommodation of the nerve endings to the constant action of the potential.
Since the work of Nernst (1908), it has been known that with prolonged irritation with an electric current of a constant value or with its slow increase, an increase in the threshold of irritation occurs, which occurs, as proven in crust, time, due to changes in the ionic permeability of the membrane.
The accommodative ability of nerve endings determines the speed of adaptation (see Accommodation). Sensory fibers have less accommodation than motor fibers. In turn, sensory fibers innervating slowly adapting stretch receptors (muscle spindles or laryngeal receptors) have minimal accommodative properties.
Receptor adaptation depends not only on accommodation, but also on primary reception processes, for example. state of the photosensitive pigment. In addition, the adaptation of receptors is constantly regulated by efferent influences from the central nervous system, reaching them through the fibers of the sympathetic nervous system and special centrifugal pathways.
The state of physiological adaptation is judged by changes in the sensitivity threshold of the analyzing system depending on changes in stimulus intensity. The study of eye adaptation is called adaptometry (see Visual adaptation).
Cellular adaptation is the adaptation of cells to environmental conditions aimed at survival and reproduction. In higher animals and plants, adaptation occurs, as a rule, at the level of the entire organism; the participation of cells in this process is only its component. Everything stated below applies to the simplest organisms.
Cellular adaptation is conventionally divided into geno- and phenotypic. Genotypic Adaptation occurs due to the selection of cells with a certain genotype that determines endurance; phenotypic adaptation occurs as a protective reaction to the action of a damaging factor. In the latter case, the intensity and timing of exposure play an important role. A strong impact can lead to cell death before adaptation occurs. When exposed to a weak stimulus (subthreshold strength) or when it slowly increases, the so-called cross-resistance, that is, cells become less sensitive not only to a given stimulus, but also to other agents.
Stability that arises under the influence of a weak stimulus can persist even after its effect ceases. This is detected after repeated use of the same agent. The rate of change in cell resistance, as well as the duration of adaptation, varies significantly. The degree of cell adaptation—increasing or decreasing the sensitivity threshold—provides the level of active function (for example, receptor function).
The mechanisms underlying adaptation depend on the nature of the cells and the nature of the damaging factor. In some cases, cells are able to modify the offending substance by physicochemically binding the agent or by chemically converting it into a less toxic form. Bacterial cells can synthesize special enzymes that break down toxic substances (induction of penicillinase in the culture of penicillin-resistant staphylococci). An increase in cell resistance to an irritant may be due to an increase in the stability of the cytoplasmic proteins themselves due to changes in the conformation of protein chains, or through the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex, or due to the synthesis of new proteins.
What is social adaptation
This concept means a complex and continuous process of adaptation (in Latin - “adaptatio”) of an individual or entire groups to the social environment in which they plan to realize themselves. These can be either completely new conditions or familiar situations that have undergone change under the pressure of economic, political, spiritual, ideological or social forces. In addition, socialization implies not only active participation in the adoption of socially significant rules, norms and values, but also their subsequent transfer to other participants in the social environment.
The French sociologist and philosopher Emile Durkheim said that social adaptation is a kind of criterion for the evolution of society. The absence of norms, the vague rules of society, which the individual will subsequently accept, is the pathology of society.
It is noteworthy that the concept itself is being adapted by researchers. Although social adaptation is widely studied (biology, philosophy, sociology) as an independent object of research, a single scientific term, specific criteria and indicators do not exist today.
Biophysical mechanisms of adaptation
Biophysics considers the adaptive response of a cell or multicellular organism from the point of view of its organization as a system open to the external environment, thus freely exchanging energy and matter with the latter. At the same time, the dynamic balance of the processes of inflow and outflow of matter and energy ensures the necessary level of stationary state of a living system, the constancy of the internal environment and various gradients at its boundaries, which determine the normal functioning of cells and the whole organism under given conditions (see Biological system). To maintain a stationary state, a living system uses the principle of feedback (see), or dynamic autostabilization, which allows a living system to automatically select the metabolic reaction rate regime that provides the optimal adaptation to the external environment. For example, with an increase in the functional activity of a cell (increased heat production, osmotic or mechanical work, etc.), ATP deficiency occurs in its mitochondria and ADP and phosphorus accumulate, which in turn accelerate the process of ATP biosynthesis in the respiratory chain.
The adaptive reaction of a living system is a transition from one stationary level of metabolic reactions to another, but since the metabolic process consists of chains of reactions with common chemical mediators, such a transition is usually associated with extreme phenomena - an outbreak of the observed process or its temporary slowdown (see Adaptation syndrome ).
Adaptation of a living cell is a consequence of physical-chemical. heterogeneity of the organization of its cytoplasm. The separation of interacting substrates using membranes is an important principle of the organization of a living system and is manifested during the implementation of protective and adaptive reactions of the body. For example, lysing enzymes (proteases) in an intact cell are enclosed in lysosomes and cannot digest protein. When a cell and, accordingly, its lysosomes are damaged, their membranes burst, enzymes are released and digest the cell, thereby performing an important process for the body - the removal of damaged cells.
Ultraviolet rays, acting on the membranes of skin cells, release the enzyme tyrosinase, under the action of which melanin pigment is formed, protecting the body from the burning effects of sunlight.
In biomembranes with strictly sequential chains of enzymes “embedded” in them (for example, the respiratory chain of mitochondria, redox chains of free oxidation in microsomes), the “relay race” transformation of substrates in a living cell is ensured. In this way, economical adaptation of the body to food (induced synthesis of enzymes necessary only in this case), adaptation to toxins and drugs (biotransformation in microsomes) and more is achieved.
The adaptation capabilities of a living system are limited by the degree of reliability of the organization of biomembranes. Even a slight increase in the ionic permeability of membranes already leads to a loss of their ability to accumulate energy.
An important role in regulating the state of biomembranes is attributed to antioxidants (see), which protect the lipid layers of biomembranes from oxidative destruction.
See also Biological membranes, Permeability.
Adaptation in cybernetics
Adaptation in cybernetics is an automatic (without human intervention) change by a cybernetic system in the nature of its functioning (behavior) in order to achieve the best result in the event of a random, unforeseen change in the characteristics of the environment. Such systems are called adaptive, or automatic adaptation or search systems, self-adapting, self-tuning, self-learning systems. A biological organism corresponds to a cybernetic system, including a control system and a control object. This analogy is widely used in modeling various functions. For example, bionics (see) studies the mechanisms of biological processes with the aim of constructing technical devices on their basis and solving engineering problems. Attempts are being made to explain biological phenomena using the concepts of control theory (cybernetics).
The most important types of adaptive systems are systems for automatic search of any value, self-learning systems for pattern recognition (see), systems that automatically generate a model with unknown parameters and use this model for control. Automatic search systems implement an ordered or random (trial and error) search for such parameters of a controlled object at which a certain indicator of the operation of this object reaches an optimal value.
Pattern recognition systems simulate the ability of many animals and humans to distinguish (recognize) similar objects from each other and classify them. Automatic recognition methods are implemented by technical systems that are capable of learning and then automatically classifying objects without the help of a “teacher” or “hints.” These methods are used in many branches of science and technology, including medicine. Thus, an adaptive information processing system was created that makes it possible to differentiate gastric cancer from peptic ulcer disease.
Adaptive systems designed to determine the characteristics (identification) of control objects allow solving problems of managing complex systems under the influence of random and uncontrolled influences.
Bibliography:
Byzov A. L. Processing of visual information in the retina of vertebrates, Vesti. USSR Academy of Sciences, no. 7, p. 55, 1969. Granit R. Electrophysiological study of reception, trans. from English, p. zi, M., 1957, bibliogr.; Lazarev L. IL Research on adaptation, M.-L. 1947; Khodorov B.I. Problem of excitability, L., 1969, bibliogr.; N crnst W. Zur Theorie des elektrischcn Rcizen. Pflugere Arch. ges. Physiol., Bd 122, S. 27b, 1908.
Cellular A.
— Aleksandrov V. Ya. Adaptive changes in cell resistance, Manual of cytology, under rhea, A. S. Troshina, vol. 2, p. 608, M.-L., 1966, bibliogr.; Dean A. and Khinshelvukh S. Mechanisms of automatic adaptation in bacterial cells, adaptation phenomena, in the book; Regulation of cellular metabolism, trans. from English, iod. ed. S. Ya. Kaplansky, p. 366, M., 1962; Clegg P. and Clegg A. Hormones, cells, organism. The role of hormones in mammals, trans. from English, M., 1971; Sevag M. G. and de Courcy S. D. Biochemical processes underlying the resistance of microorganisms to drugs and biochemical ways to prevent this resistance, in the book; Functional biochemical, cell. structures, ed. A. I. Oparina, p. 369, M., 1970, bibliogr.; Yabrov A. A. On the issue of the mechanism of cellular stress. Cytology, vol. 11, no. 2, p. 137, 1969, bibliogr.
Biophysical mechanisms A.
— Bauer E. S. Theoretical biology, p. 165, M.-L., 1935; P RigozhinI. Introduction to the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, trans. from English, M., 1960, bibliogr.; Problems of biochemical adaptation, ed. A. A. Pokrovsky, M., 1966, bibliogr.; Physico-chemical foundations of autoregulation of cells in cells, ed. E. B. Burlakova, O. R. Collier* p. 7 and others, M., 1968. bibliogr.
A. in cybernetics
— Gubler E. V., Computational methods for recognizing pathological processes, Leningrad, 1970, bibliogr.; Chadeesh V. M. Adaptive models in control systems, M., 1966, bibliogr.; Fitznev L.N. Control of motion coordination, M-, 1971, bibliogr.; Tsypkin Ya. a. Adaptation and training in automatic* systems, M., 1968, bibliogr.
A. I. Esakov; A. G. Butkovsky (cyb.) V. A. Veselovsky (biophysics) Yu. E. Ershikova (biol.)
How to write a term paper on speech therapy
07.09.2010 192807
These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.
Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.
The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.
The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.
The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.
Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.
As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.
The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.
In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.
So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.
The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.
Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”
The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.
The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.
Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.
In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.
The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.
The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.
When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.
The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.
The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.
You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:
– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.
– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.
– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.
The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.
The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.
The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.
When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:
– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;
– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;
– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;
– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);
– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.
A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.
When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.
As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].
When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].
However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.
In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.
When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:
– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.
– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.
– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.
In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.
The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.
The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.
The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.
In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.
The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.
In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.
The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.
Literature:
1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.
2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.
