Short-term memory

Every person throughout his life accumulates certain information, experience and knowledge that he needs in various areas of his activity. All this is possible thanks to memory. Without it, humanity would never have achieved progress and would still remain at the level of the primitive communal system. Memory is one of the most important functions of our consciousness. What does this concept mean? What are the main types of memory in psychology? What violations can a person encounter, and how can they be corrected?

Concept and functions of memory

Memory is the ability of a person’s consciousness to accumulate, preserve, and also reproduce previously acquired knowledge, skills, and information about our world. In various forms it is inherent in all living organisms. However, in humans, compared to other creatures, memory is at the highest level of development.

Different types of memory contribute to the fact that a person can not only master certain information, but also repeat and reproduce all kinds of actions. Memory allows us to transport our thoughts into the past, re-experience the emotions and worries that we once experienced. This function of the human psyche provides a connection between the past, present and future, making learning and personal development possible.

Memory helps coordinate the work of various subsystems of our psyche. With its help, a person is able to achieve the goal set for himself by remembering and reproducing the necessary information at the right time.

The main functions of memory include the ability to accumulate and retain acquired knowledge for a long period of time. It is also necessary to reproduce information with maximum accuracy.

Classification of types of memory in psychology

Characteristics of other organisms, in addition to humans, include genetic and mechanical memory. The first of them is stored in the genotype of a living organism and is inherited. It is impossible to have any influence on it using the methods known to us. Rote memory is a learning ability based on repetition, without thought or awareness of actions.

Depending on which of the senses is most involved in the memorization process, the following types of memory are distinguished: auditory, visual and tactile. Based on the duration of information storage, it is divided into long-term and short-term.

Also, the classification of types of memory is made according to the type of human thinking. According to it, associative, logical, and indirect memory are distinguished.

The first type is the process of assimilation of information through the construction of a certain chain of associations. So, for example, when a person studies a foreign language, this or that word may seem similar in pronunciation to Russian. This will make it much easier to remember.

Logical memory is built on the semantic relationship of various elements that need to be remembered. Having understood the cause-and-effect relationships, a person can easily assimilate the information he needs.

Indirect memory is based on the comparison of new knowledge with a person’s existing life experience. It includes both logical and associative memory.

Depending on how purposefully a person assimilates information, psychology distinguishes such types of memory as voluntary and involuntary. In the first case, knowledge is recorded accidentally, automatically. Involuntary memory involves the purposeful concentration of a person’s attention to retain the necessary information.

Qualities and individual characteristics of our memory

Each person's memory is developed in its own way. For some, it is not difficult to quickly memorize a fairly large amount of information, while for others it is difficult to learn even a short poem.

In psychology, the following qualities of memory are distinguished: volume, accuracy, duration, speed of memorization and readiness for reproduction. All of them are developed in a particular person to varying degrees.

Memory capacity is the ability of an individual to simultaneously store and retain a significant amount of information in his head. According to scientific data, people do not use 100% of their brain, and our memory is also not used to its full potential. Our consciousness can accommodate much more information than the most modern computer, but few people realize their potential capabilities in practice.

Memory accuracy allows a person to reproduce learned information as reliably as possible. Very often, over time, part of the data can be erased from our consciousness or distorted. The accuracy of reproduction ensures their reliable preservation in an unchanged form.

The duration of memory allows you to retain the necessary information in your head for a certain time. So, for example, it is important for a student who has memorized all the tickets before the session not to forget them until he passes the exams. After this, it makes no sense for him to retain information in memory.

Speed of memorization is also one of the most important characteristics of memory. It is determined by the amount of time required to assimilate this or that information. Some students, for example, need to study for the entire semester in order to pass the session. For others, it is enough to read the material one time before the exam.

Readiness to reproduce is characterized by a person’s ability to quickly recall the necessary information. For some this is not at all difficult, but for others it takes time to gradually find in the depths of their memory what they need.

The relationship between short-term and long-term memory

There is a close relationship between these concepts. That knowledge that is of particular interest to a person passes into long-term memory. And from it the necessary information blocks are then periodically extracted and entered into short-term memory.

The interaction of these types of memory is constantly observed and it is this that characterizes the quality of memorization and assimilation of certain information, as well as a person’s ability to extract and reproduce previously acquired knowledge.

Thus, long-term and short-term storage of information perform important functions in memorizing and reproducing material. Short-term ability lends itself well to training and development when performing special exercises. Long-term can also be developed, but it requires much more time and effort.

Regardless of the purpose for which a person remembers this or that information, it will necessarily be initially stored in short-term memory. In the future, the data either loses its relevance and is supplanted, or is transferred to long-term storage so that it can be reproduced at the necessary time. Those who want to develop their memory need to constantly practice memorizing material and the ability to reproduce it after some time.

Concept and features of visual memory

Visual memory is characterized by the fact that a person is able to remember faces, text, and various objects he has seen. When it is necessary to remember something, certain images appear in front of him, which are formed by our consciousness. People who have more developed this type of memory find it easier to assimilate information through visual contact with the subject of knowledge.

The peculiarities of this type of memory are that in the process of memorization our brain transforms and transforms the original data. At the same time, small, unimportant details may be completely omitted, while something larger and attracting attention, on the contrary, will stand out and be exaggerated. Our consciousness is able to represent the information we see in the form of diagrams and drawings, which are easier to retain in memory.

Visual memory is not developed equally in all people. Someone can easily describe an object that he saw for a couple of seconds, while another person, even carefully examining this or that thing, will later miss important points when talking about it.

Features of short-term memory

Short-term memory is another method of storing knowledge. This is a time-limited retention of information. It usually takes a short time interval - about 30 seconds. This process is carried out at the level of sensory sensations. In this case, what is specifically remembered is what a person’s attention is directed to and what is important to him at a given moment in time, but after a short period of time this information has two ways of moving:

ceases to be relevant and is forgotten;
goes into long-term memory.

WE RECOMMEND SEEING: Why memory disappears when intoxicated

If after a day, a week, a month, memories of a specific event are still retained, then this information has become the object of long-term memory.

The specificity of short-term memory is that it is associated with two important information processing processes:

encoding;
storage.

For certain knowledge to enter the information repository, it must be significant for a specific person. It is usually difficult to remember a lecture listened to verbatim, but only that part of it that was filled with meaning and value for the addressee is remembered.

Not everything is remembered for a short time, but a limited number of objects (numbers, events, names, dates, images, etc.). Their number differs depending on age. So, a child keeps 5-6 elements in memory at the same time, and an adult – 7-9. But this is also influenced by the individual ability to memorize.

The quality of such memory is influenced by external factors. If a person is distracted by another object that has fallen into the zone of attention, then the information received before will be quickly forgotten. An example of this is a situation when, in a conversation, when abruptly switching to another topic, the interlocutor asks himself: “So what were we talking about?”

In psychology there is the concept of working memory. It is a person's ability to store specific material within a designated time range. This property helps school-age children and students remember what they hear and read. Then this knowledge replenishes the volume of long-term memory or is forced out of it forever.

Features of auditory memory

Many people find it much easier to remember information by hearing than by making eye contact. So, when learning a poem, some children need their parents to first read it to them several times. Auditory memory is a person’s ability to remember and assimilate, store and subsequently reproduce sound information.

Every person has auditory memory to one degree or another. Someone can easily reproduce verbatim the information they have heard briefly. For some people this is more difficult. But even if, after carefully listening to the lecture, you did not remember anything from it, you should not think that this type of memory is completely unusual for you. Perhaps your brain simply does not want to perceive information that is not interesting to you, because in a conversation with a friend, almost everyone will remember what exactly he told you about.

How to improve short-term memory?

Some ways to remember information for a short time have already been given. Other methods to improve short-term memory should be considered:

Repetition should be distinguished from cramming, when one tries to remember and understand information. The repetition occurs several times just to remember at least its sound or shape.
Associations - this method has already been considered. This is when you try to find similarities between one piece of information and another. For example, the infinity sign resembles the number eight, and swans resemble the number two.
Mindful remembering is when you intentionally direct your attention to the process of remembering. You make sense of what you are trying to remember. You understand, remember, give analogies, etc.
The right way of life. This is not a method of effective memorization, but just an accompanying element that contributes to this function. You need to eat right, get enough sleep, exercise, be in a good mood - all this contributes to better brain function.
The connection of one object with another. These include "mnemonics" or "body connection" techniques. To remember information, you begin to associate it with something. For example, to remember someone's phone number, you learn it while listening to music you like. Connect your positive emotions with what you remember.
English language. To remember information from English, it is proposed to find analogues in Russian. For example, the word “look” and the Russian equivalent “bow”.
Story. To remember information, you can create a short story that includes this information. When you need to remember it, you should simply reproduce the story.
Finding a familiar object in an unknown one. To remember something, you need to start with what is already familiar and remembered.

Extraneous noise also affects memory performance. Often people remember information that is not important to them when they hear certain sounds, smells or words that they observed while remembering the information. This is a kind of anchoring.

go to top

When highlighting types of memory in psychology, long-term and short-term memory are most often mentioned first. The latter is a method of storing information for a short period of time, usually from 20 to 30 seconds. Very often the physical memory of a computer is compared with it.

Short-term memory retains a generalized image of an object that a person has perceived. It focuses on the most basic and prominent features, the most memorable elements. Short-term memory functions without a preliminary setting for memorization. However, it is aimed at reproducing the information just received.

The main indicator characterizing short-term memory is its volume. It is determined by the number of units of information that a person will be able to reproduce with absolute accuracy 20-30 seconds after some data has been presented to him once. Most often, people's short-term memory capacity varies between 5 and 9 units.

Information is retained in short-term memory through repetition. Data is scanned by our brain using vision and then spoken through inner speech. After this, short-term auditory memory begins to work. In the absence of repetition, stored elements are forgotten over time or replaced by newly arrived data.

Short-term memory (STM)

Short-term memory contains memories that are stored for only a few seconds. However, even in situations where we need to remember information only for a short time, the process of memorization includes three stages: encoding, storage and retrieval. Let's take a closer look at each of these three stages in relation to working memory.

Coding

To encode information into short-term memory, you need to focus your attention on it. Because we selectively direct attention (see Chapter 5), short-term memory will contain only selected material. This means that much of what affects a person will never enter short-term memory and, of course, will not be available for subsequent reproduction. Indeed, many of the difficulties referred to by the general term “memory problems” are actually related to weakened attention. If, for example, you are buying something at the grocery store and someone later asks you what color the saleswoman's eyes were, you will not be able to answer, but not because your memory has failed you, but primarily because you did not pay attention to her eyes.

Phonological (acoustic) coding

When memorized information is encoded, it is translated into a specific code, or representation. For example, when you find a phone number and hold it in your memory until you finish dialing, how do you imagine the numbers? Is such a representation visual - a mental image of numbers? Is it acoustic - the sounding names of numbers? Or is it semantic (meaning-based) and contains some meaningful associations with numbers? Research shows that we can use any of these options to encode information in short-term memory, but we prefer the acoustic code and, in an attempt to keep the information active, we repeat it, that is, we repeat it to ourselves over and over again. Repetition is the most popular technique when information consists of verbal elements - numbers, letters or words.

So, when trying to remember a phone number, we most often encode this number in the form of sounding names of numbers and repeat these sounds to ourselves until we dial the number.

In a classic experiment that validated the use of an acoustic code, subjects were briefly presented with a set of 6 consonants (eg, RLBKSJ); when the letters were removed, the subject had to write all 6 letters in order.

Although the entire procedure took only a second or two, the subjects made mistakes at times. In case of errors, the incorrect letters sounded similar to the correct ones. In the above example, the subject could write RLTKSJ, replacing the B (“bi”) with a similar-sounding T (“ti”) (Conrad, 1964). This result confirms that subjects encoded each letter acoustically (for example, “bi” for the letter B), sometimes losing part of this code (only the “i” part of the “bi” sound was retained) and replacing it with a letter that matched the rest of the code ( "ti") This also explains why it is more difficult to remember items in order when they are acoustically similar (e.g., TBCGVE) than when they are acoustically different (RLTKSJ). kay, es, jay").

Visual coding

If necessary, we can also store verbal elements as a visual representation. However, experiments show that although we can use visual coding for verbal material, this code quickly fades. In cases where a person needs to remember nonverbal information (for example, pictures that are difficult to describe and therefore difficult to repeat phonologically), visual encoding plays an important role. Many of us can hold a visual image in short-term memory, but few are able to retain images with almost photographic precision. This ability is found mainly in children. Such children can quickly look at a picture and, when it is removed, still feel its image before their eyes. They can hold this image for minutes, and when asked about the picture, they produce many details, such as the number of stripes on the cat's tail (Figure 8.2). Such children appear to read details directly from the eidetic image (Haber, 1969). However, stable eidetic images are very rare. Some studies with children show that only about 5% of them report having long-lasting images with clear details. Moreover, when the criteria for possessing truly photographic imagery are tightened—for example, by requiring one to read a mentally represented page from bottom to top as easily as from top to bottom—the incidence of eidetic imagery becomes very small, even among children (Haber, 1979). Thus, the visual code in short-term memory is something like a photographic print.

Rice. 8.2. Tests for the eidetic image. This test picture was presented to elementary school children for 30 seconds. When the picture was removed, one boy saw in its eidetic image “about 14” stripes on the cat’s tail. This is Marjorie Torrey's drawing for Alice in Wonderland, in Josette Frank's abridged version.

Two short-term memory systems

The existence of both acoustic and visual codes has led researchers to believe that short-term memory consists of two stores, or buffers. One buffer is acoustic, storing information in acoustic codes for a short time; the second store is the visuospatial buffer, which briefly stores information in visual or spatial codes (Baddeley, 1986). Some recent studies using brain scanners suggest that the operation of these two buffers is mediated by different brain structures.

In one experiment, subjects saw a sequence of letters on each trial in which the name and position of the letter changed from element to element (Figure 8.3). In some trials, subjects had to pay attention only to the name of the letter, and were tasked with determining whether each letter presented was the same as one that was presented three letters earlier in the sequence. On other trials, subjects had to pay attention only to the spatial position of the letters, and the task was to determine whether the position of each letter presented coincided with the position of a letter presented three positions earlier (Fig. 8.3). Thus, in all cases, the stimuli were the same, but the type of information stored by the subjects changed - it was either verbal (name of the letter) or spatial (location of the letter) information. Presumably, verbal information is stored in the acoustic buffer, and spatial information is stored in the visuospatial buffer. In acoustic and spatial tests, brain activity was measured using a PET scanner. The results showed that, roughly speaking, these two buffers are located in different hemispheres. When subjects had to store verbal information (an acoustic buffer), most brain activity occurred in the left hemisphere; and when they had to store spatial information (the visuospatial buffer), brain activity was greater in the right hemisphere.

Rice. 8.3. Experiment with acoustic and visual buffers. The subjects had to decide whether each presented element coincided with what was presented in this sequence three positions earlier. The upper part of the figure shows a typical sequence of events when the subject had to pay attention only to the name of the letter, and reactions in response to the presentation of each element. The lower part of the figure shows trials in which the subject had to pay attention only to the position of the letter, and reactions in response to the presentation of each element (from Smith et al., 1995).

Apparently, these two buffers are separate systems (Smith et al, 1996). These results are not surprising given the brain's tendency toward hemispheric specialization, discussed in Chapter 2.

Storage

Perhaps the most remarkable thing about short-term memory is its very limited capacity. On average, its limit is seven elements plus or minus two (7 ± 2). Some people can only store five items; some hold as many as nine. It may seem strange that such a precise number is given for all people, although it is clear that individuals vary greatly in their memory abilities. However, these differences relate primarily to long-term memory. Short-term memory in most adults has a volume of 7 ± 2 elements. This consistency has been known since the early days of experimental psychology. Hermann Ebbinghaus, who began the experimental study of memory in 1885, presented data according to which the capacity of his short-term memory was 7 elements. Almost 70 years later, this constant so impressed George Miller (Miller, 1956) that he called it the “magic seven,” and today we know that this limit exists in both Western and non-Western cultures (Yu et al., 1985) .

Psychologists determined this number by presenting subjects with various meaningless sequences of elements (numbers, letters, words) with the task of subsequently reproducing them in order. The items were presented quickly, and the subject did not have time to associate them with information stored in long-term memory; therefore, the number of items recalled reflects only short-term memory storage capacity. In the initial tests, the subjects had to reproduce only a few elements, say 3-4 digits, which was not difficult. Then the number of digits increased with each trial until the experimenter determined the maximum number of digits that the subject could reproduce in the correct order. This maximum number (almost always between 5 and 9) is the memory capacity for a given subject. This is such a simple task that you can easily try to do it yourself. The next time you're looking at a list of names (an office or university phone book, for example), read the list once, then turn around and see how many names you can repeat in order. Most likely from five to nine.

Enlargement

As we just noted, the procedure for determining memory capacity does not allow subjects to correlate memorized elements with information in long-term memory. When such a correlation is possible, subjects' performance in the volume determination task changes significantly.

To illustrate this change, let's imagine that you are presented with the letter sequence SRUOYYLERECNIS. Since your memory capacity is 7 ± 2, you will not be able to repeat this entire 14 letter sequence. But if you notice that these letters form the phrase SINCERELY YOURS, read in reverse order, your task will become easy. Using this knowledge, you reduce the number of elements that must be in short-term memory from 1.4 to 2 (two words). But where does this information about reading letters come from? Of course, from long-term memory, where information about words is stored. This way, you can use long-term memory to recode new material into larger, meaningful units and then store them in short-term memory. Such units are called blocks, and the capacity of short-term memory is best expressed as 7 ± 2 blocks (Miller, 1956). Combining into blocks can also be done with numbers. The sequence 149-2177-619-96 exceeds the permissible volume, but the sequence 1492-1776-1996 fits well into it. The general principle is that the capacity of short-term memory can be expanded by rearranging sequences of letters and numbers into units that can be found in long-term memory (Bower & Springston, 1970).

Forgetting

We can hold up to 7 elements in short-term memory, but in most cases they will soon be forgotten. Forgetting occurs either because elements fade away over time or because they are replaced by new elements.

Information may simply disintegrate over time. We can say about the representation in memory of an element that it is a trace that fades away in a few seconds. One of the best evidence for this is that the capacity of short-term memory for words decreases as they get longer: for example, long words like “calculator” or “anticyclone” will have less capacity than short words like “ cassock" or "bench" (try pronouncing them yourself to feel the difference in duration). This effect can be explained by the fact that as words are presented, we say them silently, and the longer this takes, the more likely it is that some traces of the words will fade before they can be recalled (Baddeley, Thompson, & Buchanan, 1975).

Another main cause of forgetting in short-term memory is the displacement of old elements by new ones. The concept of repression is consistent with the fixed capacity of short-term memory.

Being in short-term memory can be compared to an activation state. The more elements we try to keep active, the less activation there will be for each of them. Apparently, only about seven elements can be simultaneously held at a level of activation that allows them to be reproduced. After seven elements have been activated, the activation for the new element must be subtracted from the previously presented elements; consequently, the activation of these latter may fall below the critical level required for reproduction (Anderson, 1983).

Playback

Now let us again imagine the contents of short-term memory as an active part of consciousness. Intuition suggests that access to such information is immediate. There is no need to get to the bottom of it; she's right here. Then reproduction should not depend on the number of elements entering consciousness. But here our intuition failed us.

According to experimental data, the more elements are in short-term memory, the slower reproduction occurs. This is confirmed in experiments, a typical version of which was proposed by Sternberg (1966). In each trial of such an experiment, the subject is shown a set of numbers (called a memorized list), which he must retain for some time in short-term memory; this is easy for the subject to do, since each list contains from one to six digits. Then this list is removed from view and a test figure is presented.

Rice. 8.4. Reproduction as a search process. Decision-making time increases in direct proportion to the number of elements in short-term memory. Light circles indicate “yes” responses, dark circles indicate “no” responses. The time for making these and other decisions is located along a straight line. Since the decision time is very short, measuring it requires equipment with millisecond accuracy (up to thousandths of a second) (after Sternberg, 1966).

The subject must decide whether the test digit was on the list. For example, if the list contained the numbers 3 6 1, and the test digit was 6, then the subject should answer “yes”; if the list is the same, but the test number is 2, the subject must answer “no.” In this task, subjects rarely make mistakes; What is of interest, however, is the decision-making time, defined as the time between the presentation of the test digit and the moment when the subject pressed the “yes” or “no” button. In Fig. Figure 8.4 shows the results of such an experiment, showing that the solution time increases in proportion to the length of the memorized list. These results are notable because the reaction times follow a straight line. This means that each additional item in short-term memory increases recall time by the same amount—about 40 milliseconds, or 1/25 of a second. The same results were obtained when the elements were letters, words, sounds, or pictures of human faces (Sternberg, 1975). These results have led some researchers to propose that retrieval requires a short-term memory search, during which items are tested one at a time. This sequential retrieval of short-term memory probably occurs at a rate of 1 item per 40 milliseconds—too fast for a person to be aware of it (Sternberg, 1966). However, if we say that short-term memory is a state of activation, we must interpret these results differently. It can be assumed that in order to reproduce an element from short-term memory, its activation must reach a critical level. That is, a person decides that a given test item is in his short-term memory if the representation of that item exceeds a critical level of activation, and the more items are in short-term memory, the lower the activation of each of them (Monsel, 1979). Such activation patterns have been shown to accurately predict many features of short-term memory retrieval (McElree & Doesher, 1989).

Short-term memory and thinking

Short-term memory plays an important role in thinking. When consciously trying to solve a problem, we often use short-term memory as a mental workspace: we use it to store elements of the problem, as well as information from long-term memory that is essential to solving it. To illustrate, consider how mental multiplication 35 x 8 occurs. Short-term memory is needed to store numerical data (35 and 8), the content of the operation being performed (multiplication) and arithmetic facts, i.e. that 8 x 5 = 40 and 8 x 3 = 24. It is not surprising that mental calculations become noticeably more difficult when you need to remember several words or numbers at the same time; Try doing this multiplication in your head while remembering the telephone number 745-1739 (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Given the role of short-term memory in mental calculations, researchers increasingly call it “working memory,” conceptualizing it as a kind of chalk board on which the mind makes its calculations and where it places intermediate results for later use (Baddeley, 1986).

Other studies have shown that short-term memory is needed not only for number operations, but also for a whole range of other complex tasks. Among them are geometric analogies, sometimes used in intelligence tests (see, for example, Ravens, 1955). An example of a geometric analogy is shown in Fig. 8.5. Try this test to gain an intuitive understanding of the role of working memory in problem solving. You will notice that working memory is needed to store 1) the similarities and differences you find among the figures in the series, and 2) the rules that you apply to explain these similarities and differences and which you then use to choose the correct answer. It turns out that the larger the working memory capacity, the better a person copes with such tasks (despite the fact that people differ relatively little in its capacity). In addition, when people solve problems like the one shown in Fig. 8.5 are simulated on a computer, one of the most important parameters that determine how good a program is is the amount of working memory specified by the programmer. There seems to be no doubt that the difficulty of solving many complex problems is due in part to the load it places on working memory (Carpenter, Just, & Shell, 1990).

Rice. 8.5. An example of a geometric analogy. The task is to examine the shapes that make up a 3x3 matrix whose bottom right element is missing, and determine which of the eight options shown below fits as the missing one. To do this, you need to look at each row and determine by what law the figures change, and do the same for each column (from Carpenter, Just & Shell, 1990).

Working memory also plays a crucial role in language processes such as participating in dialogue or reading text. When the goal of reading is comprehension, we often consciously connect new sentences with previously read material. This linking of new with old likely occurs in working memory, since people with greater working memory capacity score higher on tests of reading comprehension (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Just & Carpenter, 1992).

Transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory

As we learned in the previous section, short-term memory has two main functions. First of all, it stores material needed for a short time and serves as a workspace for mental calculations. Another possible function is that it serves as a way station on the way to long-term memory. That is, while information is being encoded or transferred to long-term memory, it can be stored in short-term memory (Raaijmakers, 1992; Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971). Although there are various ways of this transfer, one of the most studied is repetition (rehearsal), the conscious repetition of information stored in short-term memory.

Repeating an item not only keeps it in short-term memory, but also forces it to move into long-term memory. Thus, the term “storage repetition” is used to refer to active efforts to retain information in working memory, and the term “developmental repetition” is used to refer to efforts to encode information for transfer to long-term memory.

The best support for these ideas came from free recall experiments. In them, subjects were first shown words chosen from a list, for example, 40 incoherent words; words were presented one at a time. After all the words were presented, subjects had to immediately recall them in any order (hence the name “free recall”). The results of one such experiment are shown in Fig. 8.6. It shows the probability of correctly reproducing a word depending on the serial number of the element in the list. The left side of the curve refers to the first few elements, and the right side refers to the last few elements.

It is assumed that during recall, the last few words presented are still in short-term memory, while the remaining words are in long-term memory. This means that we should expect a high probability of recalling the last few words, since elements from short-term memory are easy to reproduce. In Fig. 8.6 it is clear that this is the case. But the reproduction of the first few elements is also quite good. Why is that? This is where repetition comes into play. When the first words are presented, they are entered into short-term memory and repeated. Since short-term memory is still barely loaded, they are repeated frequently and are therefore transferred to long-term memory.

Rice. 8.6. Results of the free recall experiment. The probability of reproduction varies depending on the ordinal number of the element in the list, with the highest probability for approximately the last five elements, followed by the probability of reproduction for the first few elements, and the lowest probability for elements in the middle of the list. Reproduction of the last few elements is based on short-term memory, and the rest - on long-term memory (according to Glanzer, 1972; Murdock, 1962).

As other elements are presented, short-term memory quickly becomes full and the opportunity to repeat each given element and transfer it to long-term memory is significantly reduced. Therefore, only the first few presented elements have the additional opportunity to transfer to long-term memory, and that is why they are later reproduced so well from it.

Thus, short-term memory is a system capable of holding 7 ± 2 blocks of information in either phonological (acoustic) or visual format. Information from short-term memory is lost due to fading or replacement and is retrieved (reproduced) from this system through a process whose functioning is influenced by the total number of memory elements activated at any given time. Finally, short-term memory is used to store and process information needed to solve problems, and therefore plays an important role in the thinking process.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory is needed when information needs to be retained either for just a few minutes (for example, a remark made earlier in a conversation) or for an entire lifetime (for example, an adult's memories of childhood). In long-term memory experiments, psychologists have generally studied forgetting over periods of minutes, hours, or weeks, but there have been very few studies involving periods of years, much less decades. Experiments spanning many years often involve recalling personal experiences (what is called autobiographical memory) rather than laboratory materials. In what follows, we will not distinguish between studies using one or another material, since they reflect many of the same principles. See→

Long-term memory

A person’s ability to store information for a very long period of time, sometimes limited only by the duration of our life, is called long-term memory. It assumes that people have the ability, at any necessary moment, to remember and reproduce what was once firmly settled in their consciousness.

A person is able to tell an unlimited number of times without losing the meaning and all the smallest details of information stored in long-term memory storage. Systematic repetition allows you to retain data in your head longer and longer.

The functioning of long-term memory is associated with processes such as thinking and willpower. They are necessary in order to find once stored information in the depths of consciousness. In order for data to move into long-term memory, a clear commitment to memorization is needed, as well as systematic repetition.

All people have this type of memory developed to varying degrees. The better the long-term memory, the more units of information a person can remember with fewer repetitions.

How does short-term memory work?

Scientists are still arguing about the formation and location of its localization, but most agree that it is localized in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex and is determined by the current electrical activity of neurons. Information circulates through closed neural circuits of the hippocampus until the impulse runs out. The electrical signal will exist in the brain from several seconds to several minutes, or will be instantly replaced by new information received. Short-term memory processes use neurotransmitters that are already present at synapses to transmit signals between neurons, and they are generally not involved in the long-term physical modification of neurons to store information. In order for information to move from short-term to long-term (consolidation phase), neurons must produce new proteins, and this takes time.

The ability to forget as a function of memory

Many people consider the ability to forget as a disadvantage, and even a memory disorder that they would like to get rid of. Indeed, few people would like to be unable to remember important information at the right time. However, in fact, the ability to forget is extremely necessary for us.

If we imagine for a second that a person would store absolutely everything in his head, and not even the smallest detail would escape our consciousness, how overloaded would our memory end up? In addition, there are many unpleasant and terrible events that you want to quickly forget. Our consciousness is designed in such a way that it tries to erase all negativity from memory. People try to remember only the good and think less about the bad.

The ability to forget allows a person to concentrate on the most important things and retain only truly necessary information in his mind. Thanks to this function, our physical memory is protected from overload. However, not in all cases, people’s ideas about the necessary information coincide with the choice of such by our brain. Such situations create problems and inconveniences for us, and the person complains that he has a bad memory.

It must be remembered that even people with phenomenal memory have the ability to forget unnecessary, superfluous information. Without this ability, the brain would work very slowly, like an overloaded computer. In this case, a person would often experience nervous disorders and all kinds of memory problems.

Memory impairment: types and causes

The causes of memory impairment are quite varied. First of all, these include injuries and lesions of the brain, as well as diseases of other organs that affect the general condition of a person. Frequent abuse of alcohol, nicotine, drugs, and systematic use of strong medications can lead to memory impairment. The cause of this problem is also a person’s poor lifestyle, constant stress, chronic lack of sleep and overwork. Many people begin to notice as they age that they have poor memory. If memory problems caused by unfavorable life factors are quite easy to eliminate, then disorders caused by serious injuries are very difficult to treat.

Like the types of memory in psychology, its disorders are also diverse. They are divided into several groups. The first includes amnesia. This disease is characterized by a violation of the individual's ability to store, remember and reproduce information. Sometimes a person cannot remember events that happened before the injury occurred. In some cases, on the contrary, he perfectly remembers the distant past, but is not able to reproduce what happened to him a couple of minutes ago.

The second group includes partial memory impairment. They are divided into hypomnesia, that is, a decrease in memory, and hypermnesia, a disease characterized by an excessive increase in the ability to retain information.

The third group includes disorders associated with distortion of information or false memories. Diseases of this kind are called paramnesia. People can appropriate other people's thoughts and actions, mix the past and present in their minds, and consider fictitious events to be reality.

When faced with any of the listed memory disorders, a person should immediately seek help from specialists. Timely treatment in many cases makes the changes reversible.

What is short-term memory?

Short-term memory is a type of memory that performs the functions of remembering some information for a short time for the purpose or quickest use in the right place. Typically, a person uses short-term memory once, that is, remembers information in order to reproduce it once when the necessary conditions present themselves. However, repeated reproduction of information in the near future is also possible.

Sometimes, if a person reproduces information many times that he tried to remember for a short time, it is remembered for a long time. When a person no longer needs it, he can remember it after a few years. This will already manifest itself as long-term memory, which performs the opposite functions of short-term memory.

Short-term memory is active and intensively developing in preschool age in children. Approximate figures for the volume of memorizing words and objects at one time:

In children - up to 5-6 units.
In adults – up to 7-9 units.

However, everything is individual. Much depends on the development of memory, which can be done at any age.

Short-term memory, like long-term memory, is very important for any person. Imagine what you would do if you went outside and forgot why you did it. Short-term memory is used several times every day. However, violations are possible.

Typically, pathologies with the ability to remember information and reproduce it occur after various brain injuries or infectious and inflammatory diseases. Deterioration of memory functions is common in old age, when dementia, degradation, tissue degeneration and muscle atrophy develop. If a person does not try to preserve his abilities, then they are lost. At any age, you can develop short-term memory, which will help improve memorization.

There are various diseases that are associated with a person's inability to remember information that happened a few minutes ago. Those who have impaired short-term memory function experience absent-mindedness (inability to concentrate on one thing), decreased learning abilities, and forgetfulness. If readers have young children, they can imagine people who lack or have impaired short-term memory.

If short-term memory is affected, it becomes obvious fairly quickly. A person cannot remember what happened to him a few minutes ago, and this forgetfulness becomes permanent.

In healthy people, short-term memory impairment occurs when:

Alcoholism, drug addiction.
Chronic fatigue.
Chronic lack of sleep.
Constant stress.

go to top

How to develop memory?

Each of us has our own memory characteristics. Some people find it easier to assimilate information by ear, while others must see the object of memorization before their eyes. For some people, learning long poems is not difficult; for others, it requires considerable effort. The different characteristics of people are not disorders, and everyone, if desired, can improve their ability to store and reproduce information.

There are several tips that will help develop memory more accessible to everyone. First of all, you need to know that the brain remembers faster the information that is interesting to us. Also an important factor is full concentration of attention on the object being studied. To remember something faster, you need to create an environment around yourself that would promote maximum concentration. For example, when preparing for an exam, you can turn off your computer and phone, ask your relatives not to make noise and not distract you.

Associations help you remember faster. By learning to build them, to compare what needs to be learned with already familiar concepts, you will significantly facilitate the memorization process.

A person’s ability to systematize received information is considered important. Consciousness transforms initial data into diagrams and graphs that are easier and faster to remember.

The development of human memory is impossible without repetition. To ensure that information is not forgotten over time, it must be repeated periodically and returned to again and again.