Epidemic of fear. Why has psychosomatics become more active during COVID-19?

The title of this article has other meanings, see Fear (meanings).

Maria Yakunchikova, “Fear”, 1893-95

Guido Reni "Massacre of the Innocents" fragment. 1611

John Quidor
"The Headless Horseman Pursues Ichabod Crane"
(1858)

Fear

- an internal state caused by a threatening real or perceived disaster [1]. From a psychological point of view, it is considered a negatively colored emotional process[2]. In the animal world, fear is an emotion based on past negative experiences that plays a large role in the survival of an individual.

Content

• 1 Fear in psychology 1.1 Fear in the psychology of communication
• 1.2 Phobias
• 1.3 Fear and anxiety
• 1.4 Classification of fears

How to get rid of fear?

Having a clear understanding of what fear is and understanding its causes, a person can try to eradicate them in order to get rid of it forever. A detailed analysis of the problem helps to cope with it. There are many proven ways to cure fear. Psychology names some effective methods:

1. Action against anxiety.
2. Logical understanding of the possible consequences of the situation. Maybe there's nothing to worry about.
3. Visualization of a phobia - on paper or in your head.
4. Courage training.

If we are talking about social phobia, it can also be dealt with step by step. There are several psychological techniques and ways to overcome the fear of communication:

• making new acquaintances and expanding your horizons;
• virtual communication, telephone conversations;
• consultation with a psychologist.

Pills for fear

It is important to understand that an emotion such as fear is not always caused by natural causes. If anxiety is caused by neurological and psychological problems, medication can help. Over-the-counter anxiety medication can be purchased at pharmacies. These include:

• herbs and extracts – valerian, roseola, motherwort;
• homeopathic medicines;
• dietary supplements;
• nootropic drugs – adaptol, phenibut, pantogam.

Sometimes various drugs can really help eliminate anxiety, but not for long. For example, for a person who is afraid of flying, it is easier to take a pill before a rare flight than to undergo a long course of psychotherapy. Regular use of antidepressants and stabilizers can reduce anxiety, but if the root of fear lies deep down, pills alone will not help. You need to work on yourself.

The worst way to deal with worries is to freeze or run away from them. You need to fight any phobias – secret and obvious – that interfere with your life, and boldly face danger and your own weaknesses. It is important to understand that people have no control over some things, and to be able to come to terms with these types of fears. For example, do not try to defeat death or avoid all natural disasters. People should listen to the instinct of self-preservation, but not silt into their fears.

Fear in psychology

The famous psychologist and doctor A.I. Zakharov defined fear as “an affective (emotionally acute) reflection in the mind of a specific threat to a person’s life and well-being”[3]. He noted that fear is based on the instinct of self-preservation, has a protective nature and is accompanied by physiological changes in higher nervous activity, which is reflected in the pulse and respiration rates, blood pressure, and the secretion of gastric juice [4].

In the theory of differential emotions by K. Izard, fear is classified as a basic emotion

, that is, it is an innate emotional process, with a genetically specified physiological component, a strictly defined facial expression and a specific subjective experience [5]. Fear is caused by real or imagined danger. Fear mobilizes the body to implement avoidant behavior, running away[6].

Fear in communication psychology

Fear as a basic human emotion, signaling a state of danger, depends on many external, internal, congenital or acquired reasons. Cognitively constructed causes of fear: feelings of loneliness, rejection, depression, threats to self-esteem, a feeling of imminent failure, a sense of personal inadequacy. Consequences of fear: emotional states of uncertainty, strong nervous tension, prompting the individual to escape, seek protection, and salvation. The main functions of fear and accompanying emotional states: signaling, protective, adaptive, search[7].

Phobias

Main article: Phobia

Mental disorders in which certain situations or objects that are not considered dangerous cause anxiety and fear are called “phobias”[8].

Fear and anxiety

Main article: Anxiety

A.I. Zakharov noted that anxiety and fear are united by a common feeling of anxiety [3]. But, unlike fear, anxiety is “an emotionally heightened sense of an upcoming threat”[3]. Most often, anxiety arises as an expectation of some event that is difficult to predict and which may threaten unpleasant consequences[3].

Classification of fears

There are normal (natural or age-related) and pathological levels of fear. Ordinary fear is short-term, reversible, disappears with age, does not deeply affect a person’s value orientations, and does not significantly affect his character, behavior and relationships with people around him[4]. The pathological level of fear manifests itself in extreme, dramatic forms of expression (horror, emotional shock, shock) or in a protracted, obsessive, difficult-to-reverse course, involuntariness, that is, a complete lack of control by consciousness, adverse effects on character, interpersonal relationships and a person’s adaptation to social life. reality[9]. Another classification is the division of fears into real and imaginary, acute and chronic, and if real and acute fears are associated with a specific situation, then imaginary and chronic with personality characteristics [10].

Classification by the number of objects of fear

• monophobia (there is one object of panic fear);
• polyphobia (there are several objects of pathological anxiety).

A classic case of polyphobia was described by A. Svyadosch (1997). The patient had two objects of anxiety for eight years: fear of contamination and fear of sharp objects. During this period, the frequency of manifestation and intensity of anxiety fluctuated significantly. Short periods in which the phobia allowed the patient to remain able to work were followed by long (up to 1.5 years) periods of exacerbation of fears. At this time, the patient completely lost her ability to work, getting out of bed only to wash her hands. She did not take off her gloves, and at the sight of sharp and dirty objects she began to have panic attacks.

Fear in culture

It was the awareness of the end of one’s existence, or more roughly, the fear of death, that ritualized the life of primitive man. The ritual, leveling fears, made it possible to accumulate cultural information, improving methods of its conservation. [ source not specified 2632 days

] The methods, regulators and results of human existence have changed. Fear played an important role in the emergence of the state. We can say that one of the factors in the creation of communities was a complex of fears. The consequence of this complex was the desire to unite in order to fight against dangers together.

If we talk about religions that occupied (and still occupy) such a significant place in human life, then fear also occupies a key place in each of them.[1] Moreover, here fear rises to a metaphysical level and includes not only the problem of life and death, but also a moral aspect. Death itself becomes a kind of border, a place of transition to another world. And how a person lived his life depends on what the other world will turn out to be for him. In this case, the imagined source of fear is not in objective reality (that is, not in the surrounding world), but beyond the limits of direct cognition. In a sense, we can consider that fear had a great influence on the development of such a criterion as morality.

Fear occupies a special place in art and literature, such as the genre of the Gothic novel (or Gothic story), the genre of horror (horror) in literature, cinema and video games. Epic and mythological folklore and folk superstitions are one of the most commonly used sources for these works. Other sources include social phobias common in a particular era.

Ivan Vladimirovich Strakhov

(09/19/1905—11/20/1985) - Russian psychologist, specialist in the field of general and educational psychology, psychology of character and types of temperament.
Doctor of Psychological Sciences (1941), Professor (1935). In 1958-1975. headed the Saratov branch of the USSR OP. For successful scientific and pedagogical activities he was awarded two Orders of the Red Banner of Labor and medals. He received his education at the Yaroslavl Pedagogical Institute, graduating from the linguistic department (1927). Already in his student years, he developed an interest in psychology (the topic of his thesis was “Experiences in the construction of Marxist psychology in Russia”) and therefore entered graduate school at the Moscow Institute of Experimental Psychology (1927-1930). At the same time he worked as an assistant at the Department of Psychology at the Moscow Industrial Pedagogical Institute. K. Liebknecht. He published a series of articles in which he raised the problem of typology and theoretical methods in psychology. In 1931, he received an invitation to head the psychology department of the Irkutsk Pedagogical Institute. From 1934 to 1937 - head. Department of the Gomel Pedagogical Institute. In 1936, he published a number of articles devoted to practical issues of educational psychology: “On the mental work of a teacher,” “How to study a student,” “On career guidance work at school.” In 1940 he organized and headed the Department of Psychology at the Saratov Pedagogical Institute (SPI, 1940-1977). In April 1941, at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute, he successfully defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic: “Emotional components of a schoolchild’s character in connection with general characterology.” The ideas developed by Strakhov regarding the essence and types of temperament, methods of studying and accounting for it were subsequently developed in his own works, as well as in the works of his students and followers. During the Second World War, Strakhov taught at various universities in Saratov, as well as at Leningrad University (1945-1946), which was evacuated to Saratov. In 1947, one of Strakhov’s most significant works, “L. N. Tolstoy as a psychologist" (re-published in the series "Psychologists of the Fatherland", 1988). The general results of the research work of the Department of Psychology of the SGPI over the 40 years of its existence were reflected in the annotated index compiled by Strakhov (1981) and an article in “Questions of Psychology” (1982). Strakhov was ed. and co-author of a number of collective monographs: “Essays on the psychology of pedagogical tact” (vol. 1-7, 1960-1969), “Issues of the psychology of attention” (issue 1-12, 1969-1980), “Issues of music education”, “Formation of musical -auditory performances" and "Musical development in the learning process" (1970-1976), as well as eight issues of "Scientific Notes" of the State Pedagogical Institute devoted to problems of psychology (1947-1963). He is also the author of the monographs: “Psychology of Creative Inspiration” (1962), “Inner Speech in Artistic Representation” (1964), “Psychology of Pedagogical Tact” (1966), “Psychological Analysis in Literary Creativity” (in 5 hours, 1973-1976 ), “Methods of psychological analysis of characters in a work of art” (1977), “Psychological analysis in the works of L. N. Tolstoy” (1978). Source:

History of psychology in faces. Personalities / Ed. L. A. Karpenko // Psychological Lexicon. Encyclopedic Dictionary in six volumes / Ed.-comp. L. A. Karpenko. Under general ed. A. V. Petrovsky. – M.: PER SE, 2005. – P. 451-452.

Source

Fear in animals

Animals also experience fear. In the animal kingdom, fear is “an emotion based on past negative experiences that is of great importance for the survival of the individual”[11]. To study fear in animals, a conditioned reflex reaction of fear is used, which is characterized by the following [12]:

• Occurs upon presentation of conditioned stimuli that were previously combined with painful stimulation;
• During the conditioned reflex reaction of fear, the animal freezes, autonomic and hormonal changes occur;
• The conditioned reflex reaction in an animal can fade over time, but can spontaneously recover after extinction. This indicates that the memory of fear is preserved, and only the behavioral manifestations of fear fade away.

Experiments conducted on animals (rats) by N.B. Saulskaya, N.V. Fofonova and P.V. Sudorgina showed that animals subjected to the development and implementation of a conditioned reflex reaction of fear, one day after production, demonstrate a reduced (compared to with control animals) research activity in a new chamber[13]. This decrease in activity is explained by the fact that the animal becomes more cautious due to the negative experience it has suffered[13]. Moreover, in animals subjected to the development of a conditioned reflex reaction of fear, one day after the experiment (it was accompanied by an electric current discharge), when a new stimulus appears, attention and a freezing reaction are stronger than in control animals [13].

Fear in an animal goes through three stages: emergence, expression and extinction. The expression of fear in experimental animals (rats, mice and rabbits) takes place in the form of a hiding reaction [14].

Physiologically, the amygdala plays a decisive role in the occurrence of all three stages[15]. Destruction of the basolateral amygdala in rats led to a disruption in the expression of fear (freezing reaction to a new threatening stimulus - a leather ball covered with cat hair) [15].

The rate of fear extinction in an animal can be adjusted by injecting certain substances into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala. The scientific literature has proven that the introduction of muscimol into the amygdala leads to a decrease in the expression of conditioned reflex fear in an animal (both in the form of hiding and in the form of changes in breathing rate and heartbeat [16].

Scientists from the Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences I. V. Pavlova and M. P. Rysakova came to the conclusion that the introduction of muscimol and bicuculline into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala before fear extinction sessions led to an acceleration of the extinction process in high-hiding rats, without having an effect on low-hiding rats rats[17]. The experiments were carried out on 33 male rats[18]. After culling, two groups of animals were identified: low-hiding rats (16 individuals) and high-hiding rats (14 individuals)[19].

Preface

This book is devoted to a topic that in recent times in our country it was not customary to talk about, because it was assumed that the Soviet person was fearless, and the presence of fear is a manifestation of cowardice, which the public consciousness treated (and still treats) negatively, cowardice has always been condemned. For example, there is a well-known popular belief that “real men are not afraid of anything.” The media, literature, and cinema also contribute to a negative attitude towards fear, where preference is given to describing the exploits of heroes. Thus, Chapaev’s troops “fearlessly gallop towards the enemy”, the musketeers have breakfast under enemy fire... As a result, in adventure and jingoistic films about the war, the fear of “their” heroes is not shown, and the sight of enemies running in panic evokes schadenfreude and sometimes laughter. (However, when talking about cinema, we should also mention such a genre as horror films. But viewers watch such films for pleasure, therefore, the study of fear in this case is somewhat irrelevant.)

Only from works of fiction and diaries, the authors of which were contemporaries - participants or witnesses to the bloody events, can one get an approximate picture of the psychological state of people on the battlefield and in other dangerous situations.

Meanwhile, a feeling of fear is inherent in any highly organized living creature, regardless of age and gender. And although it is generally accepted that men should show fearlessness, it should be borne in mind that they are the same biological creatures as women - both have defensive reactions in response to danger [1] (threat), and fear is one of the them. Let us recall a scene from the Russian comedy film “Striped Flight”: when one of the heroes (played by E. Leonov) is asked to climb into the tigers’ cage, he refuses; then he is accused of cowardice, and he replies: “I am not a coward, but I am afraid.” Gold words! Indeed, everyone is afraid - both the cowardly and the brave, only to varying degrees and in different forms. But due to the negative attitude of society towards the experience of fear, it is customary to hide it.

The problem of fears in Russian psychology is still mainly studied by clinical psychologists, mainly in children, and pathological fears - by psychiatrists. This significantly narrows the field of consideration of this problem, leaving aside many aspects that are important for the behavior and activities of adults. After all, fear often accompanies many types of human activity: sports, military, scientific, theatrical, etc. Therefore, a broader consideration of this problem is required in comparison with what is currently available in the psychological literature.

Many issues related to the use of concepts related to this problem, such as anxiety, fear, apprehension, fear, still remain unclear. To show how undeveloped this issue is, I will give a few examples. One of the authors of a book on the psychology of war writes: “What do we know about fear? We remember how in childhood, in the evenings, our comrades would scare us, jumping out from around the corner with a loud “Ooh!” We are afraid of being robbed. We are afraid of the possibility of getting punched in the teeth during a fight. We are afraid to ride a roller coaster or jump with a parachute. But all this is fear, apprehension, excitement. But not fear." Like this: on the one hand there is fear, and on the other hand there is no fear.

Even emotion specialist K. Izard does not really think about the meaning of the words he uses when he writes that “the experience of fear frightens a person” [121, 122, p. 295]. And S. Tomkins [504, 505], on the contrary, believes that the fear reaction is an activator of fear. So figure out here what is fear and what is fright, what is primary and what is secondary.

Therefore, in addition to presenting the main issues, the book offered to the reader makes an attempt to clarify the relationships between the concepts used when considering the problem of fear, which has not only theoretical but also practical significance, in particular in the development of methods for the prevention and elimination of fears in the event that They are associated with disorganization of behavior and activity, and sometimes also with a person’s mental health.

The logic for presenting various aspects of the problem under consideration was as follows. There are several forms and varieties of human reactions to impending or real danger (threat). But since in the phylogenetic development of man, the primary and basic emotion for all other forms is the emotion of fear, which arises as an unconditioned and conditioned reflex defensive reaction, the first chapters are devoted to its types and forms. Then secondary phylogenetically later types and forms of reactions to danger are considered (fear, phobias as an attitude towards dangerous objects and situations, as known fears), associated with voluntary mechanisms, anticipation of danger and apprehension (readiness to defend).

The book provides an extensive list of references, and the appendix contains an almost complete list of phobias and numerous methods for studying fear and its varieties.

The book is aimed at students and specialists in various specialties - psychologists, teachers, doctors, sports coaches, law enforcement officers, and the Ministry of Emergency Situations. It may also be of interest to parents who have problems with their children experiencing fear.

Fear in a person

It is impossible for fear to command the mind; Otherwise, we move away from accomplishments, Like an animal when it imagines itself.

Dante Alighieri[20]

Newell Converse Wyeth's First Steps of Thorongunna
(1915)

In everyday life or in emergency situations, a person has to overcome dangers that threaten his life, which causes fear, i.e. a short-term or long-term emotional process generated by a real or imaginary danger, an alarm signal. Usually fear causes unpleasant sensations, but it can also be a signal for protection, because The main goal facing a person is to stay alive. However, it should be borne in mind that the response to fear can be rash or unconscious actions of a person caused by panic - a manifestation of severe anxiety. Fear also shortens life expectancy[21].

The course of the emotion of fear in different situations for different people can vary significantly, both in strength and in influence on behavior.

Fear can manifest itself in the form of an excited or depressed emotional state. Very strong fear (for example, horror) is often accompanied by a depressed state. In addition to the general term “fear,” the terms “anxiety,” “fear,” “panic,” “phobias,” etc. are used for various negative emotional states that are similar in nature. For example, short-term and strong fear caused by a sudden strong stimulus is called “fright,” and long-term, mild, diffuse fear is called “anxiety.”

Mental disorders such as phobias can lead to frequent and intense feelings of fear in a person. A phobia is an obsessive, irrational fear associated with a certain object or situation that a person cannot cope with on his own.

Some philosophers, especially those who approach this phenomenon from a purely moral standpoint, consider fear to be a harmful emotion with bad consequences. Other philosophers, especially those who view fear as a primarily biological phenomenon, on the contrary, consider this state to be useful because it alerts us to dangerous situations. Fear is also understood as one of the possible states of human existence[22]. These points of view are not mutually exclusive, since the sensation of pain ensures the self-preservation of the individual, and becomes unproductive or dangerous only in the most intense and prolonged manifestations.

Introduction. About the essence of fear and the contradictions of life

Fear is an inevitable part of our lives. Constantly changing, it accompanies us from birth to death. The history of mankind from the past to the present consists of attempts to overcome, reduce, overpower or curb fear. Magic, religion and science make efforts for this. Devoting oneself to God and love, studying the laws of nature, an ascetic lifestyle and philosophical knowledge hardly eliminate fear, but they help to endure it and, perhaps, make our development more fruitful. The hope of being able to live without fear remains an illusion; it is contained in our existence and is a reflection of our dependence and our knowledge of the inevitability of death. We can only try to counter the development of fear with our courage, trust, knowledge, strength, hope, humility, faith and love. This can help us come to terms with fear and explain it, but it always wins again. We are skeptical about methods that are aimed at freeing ourselves from fear; they are unfair to existence and raise unrealistic expectations. Although fear constantly permeates our lives, this does not necessarily mean that we are aware of it for a long time. It can appear in consciousness only for a moment, concentrating on internal or external experiences. We tend to use various evolving techniques to soften, overcome, soothe, deceive and deny fear. However, just as death does not cease to exist, despite the fact that we do not think about it, so fear does not disappear. Fear exists regardless of the culture and level of development of a people or its individual representatives; the only thing that changes is the objects of fear, for as soon as we believe that we have conquered or overcome fear, another type of fear appears, as well as other means and measures aimed at overcoming it. Currently, we are no longer afraid of thunder and lightning, solar and lunar eclipses and treat them as interesting natural phenomena, but we cannot get rid of the experience of fear, since the disappearance of some prejudices does not exclude the possibility of the destruction of the world. In this regard, today we experience fear of the threat of new diseases, of a possible transport accident, fear of old age or loneliness. Methods of dealing with fear have still not changed much. Only instead of making sacrifices and magic spells, today it is fashionable to cover up fear with the help of pharmacological means, but it still remains with us. A new serious opportunity for processing fear is modern psychotherapy in its various forms: it, first of all, reveals the individual history of the development of fear, explores its relationship with individual family and socio-cultural conditions and organizes a “confrontation” of the individual with the sources of his fear for the purpose of its fruitful processing and overcoming. The pattern of life, experienced from its cradle to the present day, is obvious - having overcome certain fears thanks to the successes of science and technology, we exchange them for new fears. In essence, fear is an inevitable companion of life, there is no other option. One new type of fear relates to our present life: we know that fear increases when our way of life and activity changes against our wishes. We are afraid that we may lose our own powers, we think about the dangers that can be caused to us by the abuse of atomic forces or the disruption of natural balance. Our existence is dual in nature and seems to us like a boomerang aimed at ourselves. Our will to power, love and humility is wrong, since the will to power and possession is directed against nature and life and causes fear in us, which, when manipulated, causes spiritual emptiness. If earlier a person felt fear of the forces of nature, being defenseless before it, threatening demons and a powerful God, now we are afraid of ourselves. It is an illusion that progress and, equally, regression have an impact on our fears. Sometimes this may be true, but the consequence (of progress or regression) is new fears. The experience of fear is contained in our very existence. It is generally accepted that each person has his own personal modifications of fear: the less expressed fear is, the more abstract death, love or other ideas are for a given person. Each person has his own individual form of fear, which also relates to a person’s way of life, like the form of love inherent only to him and his own, individual inevitability of death. Fear is individual and reflects the personal characteristics of each person; it occurs in all social systems. Our personal fear is associated with our individual living conditions, our predisposition and our environment; it has its own history of development and begins, practically, from the moment our development begins (i.e., it is born with us). If we consider fear “without fear,” it seems that it has a dual aspect: on the one hand, fear activates us, and on the other, it paralyzes us. Fear is always a signal and warning of danger; it equally contains a proposal, that is, an impulse to overcome this danger. Assumptions about the source of fear and its awareness indicate a certain stage of development, the achievement of maturity. Avoidance of formulating and explaining fear leads to its stagnation; this hinders our further development and leaves us at that level of childhood when the boundaries of fear are insurmountable. Fear always arises when we find ourselves in an insoluble or yet unresolved situation. Every development, every step towards maturity is associated with fear if they lead us to something new, previously unknown and unknown in an internal or external situation, not experienced by us. Everything new, unknown, happening or experienced for the first time, along with the attractiveness of the new, the desire for adventure and risk, is also accompanied by fear. Since our life always leads to the new, unattainable and unknown, it is always accompanied by fear. It appears first of all in consciousness as an important point in our development and, as we grow older, it loses the usual paths and directions for solving or transforming new problems. Development, growing up and maturation are clearly accompanied by activities to overcome fear, and each age with corresponding stages of maturity is accompanied by fear, which arises again and intensifies after overcoming each stage. It seems completely normal to have fears associated with age-related changes that a healthy person endures and outgrows and which are important for his successful development. Let's remember our first independent steps in childhood. We experience the fear that arises when mother's hands leave us for the first time, and the fear of loneliness before the need to overcome free space. Remembering the most significant events of our lives, we talk about the fear that takes possession of a child at the beginning of the school period of his life, when the child changes the usual relationships in the family for a new society and establishes himself in this society. We remember our adolescence and youth with our first acquaintance with the opposite sex, erotic longing and craving for sexual encounters, the first steps of professional life, the creation of our own family, motherhood, finally, parents and a meeting with death - and we always find fear that takes possession of us before the first acquisition of new experience. All these types of fear are organic components of our life, as they are associated with somatic, mental and social development, with the mastery of new functions when joining a society or community. Fear always accompanies every new step of crossing the boundaries of the familiar, requiring us to resolve to move from the familiar to the new and unknown. Along with these fears, there is an abundance of individual fears that are not typical for the borderline situations mentioned above. These fears cannot be understood by others because they are unknowable to ourselves. For some, the trigger for fear is loneliness, for others it is a crowd of people, for others attacks of fear occur when they cross a bridge or empty space, for a quarter they cannot be in a confined space; some experience fear at the sight of harmless, harmless animals - beetles, spiders or mice. So, it is almost impossible to imagine all the variety of fears that different people have, since upon closer examination we can identify new variants of a particular fear. That is why it is desirable to identify and describe the “basic forms of fear,” which can include all possible fears. Fear in its extreme versions can take destructive forms or be transferred to other objects. The fact is that we tend to associate overwhelming and unprocessed fear with completely harmless ersatz objects that are easier to avoid than the true source of fear. The main forms of fear are interconnected with our well-being in this world and with our tense distribution between two large antinomies, which we experience in their inextricable opposition and repetition. I would like to clarify both of these antinomies equally, including them in the transpersonal order and patterns of which we are not aware, but which nevertheless exist. When we are born into this world, we obey four powerful impulses: our Earth revolves around the Sun, which is also the central luminary of our own world system, whose movement we define as a revolution or revolution. At the same time, the Earth rotates around its axis, which is called its own rotation. Thus, there are two mutually exclusive or complementary impulses that keep our world system in motion, forced by two directions: gravity and centrifugal force. The force of gravity maintains the integrity of our world, tending inward, towards its center, and keeping it from falling apart. The centrifugal force is directed from the center outwards, it tends to expand and, when released, is directed towards separation and continuous movement. Only the balanced interaction of these four impulses guarantees the natural and moving order of life in which we live and which we call the cosmos. The predominance or loss of one type of movement disrupts or destroys this universal order and leads to chaos. Let's imagine that the Earth will use up one of these basic impulses. Let, for example, a revolution occur, as a result of which the Sun will rotate only around its own axis, as a result of which the order according to which the Sun is the center around which other planets move is disrupted. We cannot prescribe the Sun its paths, since it lives according to its own laws. The Earth has its own rotation and, in addition, rotates around the Sun, remaining together with its satellite the Moon at a certain planetary stage; Moreover, the Earth and the Sun are mutually dependent on each other. In both cases, the planetary laws and the laws of rotation of the Sun are interdependent and, therefore, their independent existence is destructive. Further. If the Earth loses gravity and is only under the influence of centrifugal forces, destruction of the usual directions and chaotic movement is inevitable, which can lead to a collision with another cosmic body. And if the force of gravity is not opposed by centrifugal forces opposite in direction, this can lead to complete ossification and immobility or to passive dependence on other forces that cannot be resisted. These comparisons, presented in allegorical form, strikingly correspond to the position of man as an inhabitant of our Earth and a tiny part of the solar system, subject to the laws of this system and, at the same time, under the influence of instinctive unconscious forces and at the same time fulfilling their demands in a latent form. We feel the need to translate every basic impulse in the human sphere into the language of psychology, finding a correspondence to them in experiences, the clash of which is manifested in the above-mentioned opposites, and in doing so we identify the basic forms of fear that interact at the deepest levels of the human spirit. Rotation, one’s own rotation, corresponds to the psychological meaning of the requirement of individuality, i.e., it is a condition for individual existence. Revolution, the movement around the Sun, our central luminary, corresponds to the demands of subordination to the great community; our own patterns and our own desires are limited in favor of superpersonal connections. The centripetal direction, the force of gravity on the mental level corresponds to our desire for constancy and stability; and finally, the centrifugal direction or centrifugal forces correspond to our desire forward, towards change and change. Other antinomies can be described in these concepts: they are contained in the contradiction of the repeated demands of stability, on the one hand, and variability, on the other. In accordance with these cosmic analogies, we justify four basic requirements that are repeated and mutually complementary in all our endeavors. Our whole life passes in changing forms, and we always want to respond to its demands in a new way. The first requirement, corresponding in our allegory of rotation, means that each individual, in order to achieve independence and uniqueness of his personality, must distinguish himself from the rest of the human mass, without exchanging his characteristics with it. Added to this requirement is the fear that threatens us when we separate ourselves from others, which arises from the moment of birth and is associated with the fact that we are part of a community and are afraid of loneliness and isolation. At all levels, whether racial, familial, national, sexual, related to our hopes or to our profession, we belong to certain groups to which we feel a sense of closeness and kinship, and at the same time, as individuals and singularities, we strive to a clear distinction from other people. This leads to the essential fact that one of our basic desires is the desire not to mix with other people and to identify uniquely with ourselves. Our existence is like a pyramid, whose base rests on the typical and universal, and the top strives to free itself from connection with the universal and be crowned with the individual and individual. With the beginning and development of our individuality, i.e. with the process of individualization, which K.G. Jung called the process of development (Entwicklungsvorgang), we leave the system of relations described by the formula “to be the same as others” (“Auch wie die anderen Seins”), and experience our singularity (uniqueness) and individuality with a feeling of fear. The more we separate ourselves from others, the more we are exposed to uncertainty, misunderstanding and rejection. Without risking, on the other hand, breaking away from the collective and from the typical affiliation, we develop our individuality, resolutely defending our human dignity. The second requirement, corresponding in our allegory of revolution, is that the world, life and human community are open to our participation and require the renunciation of the “I” for this, and otherwise are alien, existing independently of us and outside of us. The second requirement implies, as follows from the entire meaning of what has been stated, self-denial and dedication. All fears are associated with these concepts, consisting in the fear of losing one’s own “I”, dependent on the need for dedication and reluctance to lose one’s individuality and sacrifice oneself to others, which is necessary to adapt to the demands of the majority. This, first of all, leads to dependence on our environment, a feeling of abandonment and powerlessness that arises when there is a threat of exclusion from this dependence and security. The risk of being left alone without connections with the world, without a sense of belonging to what is outside of us accompanies our entire life from the moment of birth and gives us the need to understand the world. We are forced to face this first antinomy of injustice that life imposes on us: we must live in conditions of self-examination and self-examination, as well as self-giving and self-forgetfulness, which at the same time can cause fear of the task of realizing one's own "I" and fear of the destruction of one's own "I" (fear of eliminating the formation of “I”). And, finally, two other requirements that are in polar relation to our decisions and complement them. The third requirement that meets in our allegory the centraumatic direction or gravity and means our desire for invariability and continuation. In our lives we must be in our life and to be located, so plan our future, to strive for it as if our life is unlimited or as if the world is stable, the future is foreseeable, the existence is endless, and at the same time know that we are half aside from death ( Media in Vita Morte Sumus) and our life comes to its end within an instant. This requirement of continuation and sustainability gives us the opportunity to have an uncertain future, in general, and in this regard, to ensure for ourselves at least some stability and protection. It is accompanied by fears that are associated with knowledge of the transient nature of our dependence and irrationality of planning of our existence, fear of the risk of everything new, before the uncertainty of our plans, before the eternal variability of our lives, which never stops and constantly changes ourselves. This fear is expressed in a well -known saying that you can not enter the same river twice, since the river is constantly changing. On the other hand, abandoning the principle of the duration and stability of existence, we lose the ability to do and implement, any activity is associated with our idea of ​​stability and duration. Otherwise, we will not be able to achieve the achievement of our goals. We live, hoping that we have unlimited time, and this illusory stability, immutability, illusory eternity are the most important impulse for our activities. And, finally, the fourth requirement in the corresponding allegory of the centrifugal direction or centrifugal force. It consists in the fact that we always strive for expansion, variability, development and overcoming, abandoning the already outgoing, overcoming traditions and everyday life, parting with achieved in order to try to survive the unknown. With this requirement, which gives us the opportunity to develop cheerfully, non -stoply and persistently discovering a new one and penetrate the secret of the unknown, the fear of the need to overcome order, necessity, rules and laws, the inertia of habits that hold, constant and limit our possibilities contrary to our movement is closely connected. To freedom. This fear, finally, is opposite to previously described, in which death is associated with the transient nature of life, and is associated with death from stiff and solidification. Being under the influence of impulses to changes and risk, forgetting and overcoming the temporary patterns of the Universe, we remain attached to our habits, hold and repeat the usual existence. Outgoing the contradictions of our life in the form of paired antinomies, we must note that we equally strive for stability and changes, and therefore are forced equally to overcome both fear of inevitable variability and inevitable necessity. So, let's get acquainted with the four main forms of fear that I want to present to readers in general:

1. Fear of self-sacrifice, experienced as loss of “I” and dependence.

2. Fear of self-development (stagnation of the “I”), experienced as defenselessness and isolation.

3. Fear of change, experienced as variability and uncertainty.

4. Fear of necessity, experienced as finality and lack of freedom.

All possible variants of fear ultimately relate to the described variants of the basic forms and are associated with four basic impulses, which in any case occur in pairs, complementing and contradicting each other: as the desire for self-preservation and self-isolation with the opposite desire for self-giving and belonging to the common and, on the other hand, as the desire for constancy and security with the opposite desire for change and risk. Every aspiration is characterized by fear of its opposite aspiration. And, returning again to our cosmic allegories, life order is possible only when there is a balance between these opposing impulses. Such equilibrium does not mean, as it seems, something static, but is full of dramatic internal contradictions, consisting of internal achievements followed by subsequent failures. In addition to what has been said, we must take into account that the nature of each fear we experience and its severity depend to a large extent both on our inherent predisposition, our heredity, and on the environmental conditions in which we find ourselves after birth, as well as on our somatic and spiritual constitution, our biography, the history of the formation of our personality. In this regard, our fears have their own history, and we see how important our childhood is in this. So, some people's fears are partly explained by their situation and living conditions; on the other hand, some fears are associated with causes and conditions whose origins remain hidden from our understanding. Certain fears are associated with the situation and environment, which includes the family, the “environment” and society, in the presence of which other fears seem to fade into the background. A normally developing healthy person, if his development is not disrupted, is generally able to avoid fear or even overcome it. Disturbances or obstacles that arise during the development process cause both an intensification and an increase in fears, with a predominance of one of the main forms of fear. Those fears whose size exceeds the critical mass when they are contained for a long time are seriously oppressive and make people sick. The fears that most heavily oppress adults are those that were experienced in childhood and against which no defense was developed. Whenever fear reaches great intensity and persistence, or when it arises at an age when maturity has not yet arrived, it is difficult to process. In such cases, the activating positive aspect of fear disappears, development is inhibited or suspended, and even a return to early childhood patterns of behavior is observed, resulting in the formation of symptoms. We strive to make understandable experiences of fear that are inappropriate for a given age, reaching such a quantity that their size becomes unbearable, especially if they occur in childhood. Insufficient development of the “I” in childhood represents a large number of unprocessed fears, which, without outside help, can cause serious damage when a person experiencing insurmountable fear is left alone with himself. Adults react to such exceptional situations as war, arrest, danger to life, other disasters, as well as internal experiences and processes that exceed the limits of their tolerance to fear, with panic reactions, short-term exceptional states or neuroses: In ordinary (normal) conditions adults, unlike children, have a much richer choice of responses and strengths to confront fear: they can think through the situation, recognize and study the factors that cause fear, can understand where the source of fear comes from, and thanks to this understanding, receive appropriate help, and Finally, they can correctly assess the possibility of a threat. The child does not have all these properties. He is too small to recognize and distinguish the object of his fear, he is internally helpless, he does not know how long this can last and what even happened. We will see later that the predominance of one of the four basic forms of fear or, from another point of view, the cessation of the action of one of the four basic types of impulses leads us to four types of personality structure or to four ways of being in the world (In der Welt Seins), with which we will become familiar with in a differentiated form and to which we all relate with varying degrees of accentuation. We also understand this personal structure as a one-sided accentuation in connection with one of the four main types of fear. Such manifestations and one-way direction, which we describe as personality structure, most likely have their origin in early childhood development. Accordingly, we consider as one of the signs of mental health which of the four main impulses predominates in our life experiences, which at the same time means which of the four main forms of fear is characteristic of a given person. The four personality structures, first of all, reflect the mental norm with a certain accentuation. Meanwhile, accentuation means an obvious one-sided direction, reaching the limits beyond which we mean borderline or extreme variants of the four normal personality structures. In this regard, we are faced with neurotic variants of personality structures, which in psychotherapy and depth psychology are described as four large neurotic forms: schizoidia, depression, obsessional neurosis and hysteria. These neurotic personalities are reflections of sharpened or extreme forms of the general types of human existence with which we are all familiar. Depending on the degree of severity of one of the four ways of existing in the world and their one-sided orientation, it is possible to describe various manifestations of their violations in mild, moderate and severe degrees of their severity. At the same time, we must evaluate the relevant constitutional features and, first of all, focus on assessing the biographical “background” (background). And one more remark: when describing the typology of personal structure and character, we must distinguish them from another system of classification of personal structures, among which psychoanalytic data and data from depth psychology predominate. Their assessments are fatalistic and unchanging, while we consider these types within the framework of the constitution or temperament, which means a much lesser degree of unambiguity and finality of assessments. The author is impressed by precisely this point of view. The process of formation of my personality not only reflects my specific somatic constitution, but also my specific attitudes, my specific behavior in the world of my life, the way I build my biography. What is fatal, i.e. psychophysical predisposition, so merges with the environment of our childhood and with the personality of our parents, as well as with the rules of the game in a given society, that the actual boundaries of the formation of our self can change, i.e. are not something then unchanged and introduced as a given. Thus we can consider the general structure of personality as a partial aspect of all humanity. In the process of subsequent development, initially set by innate factors, due to over-hostile, erroneous, rejected or repressed aspects of our existence, innate structures can be changed or supplemented in favor of an imagined unity, maturity or completeness on a scale that cannot be achieved alone. We are considering here four general basic attitudes and modes of behavior in contrast to the conditions and interrelations of our existence, just as cosmic order is contrasted with apparent imbalance. Preserving the basic concepts of the doctrine of neuroses when defining the four types of personality structure is valid and applicable for practical purposes to determine the so-called mental health. These concepts are also applicable both for understanding the formation of personality arising from biography, and for neurotic development options, and therefore the use of new terms and definitions seems unnecessary to us. The reader will be more likely to understand what has been said if the commonly used concepts of schizoidia, depression, etc. are used in all their plasticity and imagery. In this book I avoid making the often-used distinction between fear and dread (Angst und Furcht). For my concept, this is unimportant, since the uncertainty in the correct use of both concepts in everyday speech comes from the following provisions: we talk about the fear of death in the same context as the fear of death, and we cannot differentiate these concepts without a certain violence against ourselves. Usually we make a distinction between fear (Furcht), which is associated with something definite and concrete, and fear (Angst), which is irrational and non-specific. Perhaps clearer differences exist between the concepts of “fear of God” (fear of breaking God’s laws) and “fear of God.” In connection with the above, I consciously refuse to separate fear from fear. This book is intended to help in our individual lives, it is a mediator in understanding ourselves and others, in understanding the first life steps in our development. The book aims to bring us again and again to an understanding of how we are connected to each other.

Childhood (age) fear

Main article: Childhood fear

Children's (age-related) fears arise at a very early age and are temporary. Children's fear is normal if it lasts no more than 3-4 weeks[23]. The causes of children's fears are the child's rich imagination, negative experiences (for example, a dog bite can cause fear of dogs), as well as suggestion from both adults and other children. Children's fear is often caused by phenomena that do not frighten adults: fairy-tale characters, darkness, etc. Children aged 5 - 8 years old have a lot of fears especially. Children's fears are divided into natural and social[24]. The earliest are natural fears that appear in preschool age. A child under the age of 1 year is afraid of loud noise, strangers, and changes in environment[25]. Among children of senior preschool and primary school age, the fear of death is widespread. In adolescence, social fears prevail - failure, condemnation, punishment, hopelessness and impossibility of self-realization, and others[26]. To eliminate children's fears, art therapy, fairytale therapy and other methods are used.

Classification by time of onset of disorders

• primary phobia (for example, fear of riding a tram);
• secondary phobia (for example, fear of traveling on buses, trolleybuses, cars and in transport in general).

For anxiety-phobic disorder, the characteristic dynamics are generalization, the gradual addition of “related” fears. This phenomenon is described by B. Karvasarsky: by the time it is necessary to hospitalize patients in a clinic, almost all patients have polyphobia and/or persistent secondary phobias.

Some types of pathological fear are “selective” and prefer to “be friends” with certain types of phobias. As practice shows, cardiophobia, cancerophobia, syphilophobia coexist with thanatophobia or nosophobia. Lissophobia is often supplemented by secondary mysophobia. Cardiophobia gives rise to claustrophobia, and in the future it can be supplemented or develop into agoraphobia.

The study of this kind of selectivity in attachment, the dynamics of the development of secondary phobia helps to clarify the mechanisms of its occurrence, although it is quite difficult and not always possible to determine and trace the true cause-and-effect relationship.

Degrees and types of fear

Fear can be described by various terms depending on its severity: fright, horror, panic.

Professor Yu. V. Shcherbatykh proposed his own classification of fears[27]. He divides all fears into three groups:

• biological,
• social,
• existential

The first group includes fears directly related to a threat to a person’s life, the second represents fears and concerns about changing one’s social status, the third group of fears is associated with the very essence of a person and is characteristic of all people. Social fears are caused by situations that may pose a threat not to a person’s life or health, but to his social status or self-esteem (fear of public speaking, social contacts, responsibility, etc.). Existential fears are associated with the intellect and are caused by thinking about issues affecting the problems of life, death and human existence itself. This is fear of death, of time, of the meaninglessness of human existence, etc.

Based on this principle, fear of fire falls into the first category, fear of public speaking into the second, and fear of death into the third. Meanwhile, there are also intermediate forms of fear, standing on the verge of two divisions. These include, for example, fear of disease. On the one hand, the disease is of a biological nature (pain, damage, suffering), but on the other hand, it is of a social nature (exclusion from normal activities, separation from the team, decreased income, dismissal from work, poverty, etc.). Therefore, this fear is on the border of groups 1 and 2 of fears, the fear of depth (when swimming) is on the border of groups 1 and 3, the fear of losing loved ones is on the border of groups 2 and 3, etc. In fact, in every fear in that or to some other extent, all three components are present, but one of them is dominant.

It is human nature to be afraid of dangerous animals, situations and natural phenomena. The fear that arises in this regard is genetic or reflexive in nature. In the first case, the reaction to danger is recorded at the genetic level, in the second (based on one’s own negative experience) it is recorded at the level of nerve cells. In both cases, it makes sense to control the usefulness of such reactions using reason and logic. It is possible that these reactions have lost their useful meaning and only prevent a person from living happily. For example, it makes sense to be wary of snakes, and foolish to be afraid of spiders; You can be quite reasonably afraid of lightning, but not thunder, which cannot cause harm. If such fears cause discomfort to a person, you can try to rebuild your reflexes.

Fears that arise in situations that are dangerous to life and health have a protective function and are therefore useful. Fears of medical procedures can be harmful to health, as they will prevent a person from making a timely diagnosis or treatment. [ source not specified 999 days

]

Risk group

Of course, when they talk about psychosomatics, they first of all try to determine who is susceptible to developing diseases on a psychological basis. And here the answer is - not everything, and the development of psychosomatic conditions depends not on the type of character. That is, there is no need to blame it on choleric people, sanguine people or other options. In fact, it depends on how consciously a person usually lives. After all, human health depends on the level of awareness. Because if he has weak or blurred personal boundaries, he is more susceptible to fears and doubts. In addition, such a person has negative attitudes that could have been implanted in him in childhood.

Article on the topic Psychosomatics in action. Why do we get sick and how to avoid it

For example, when they were children, their mother told them that if you walk without a hat in winter, you will get sick. At the same time, not everyone who goes out without a hat gets sick, and not everyone who goes out with a wet head after a bath gets sick. Only those who believe in it get sick.

Negative attitudes can enter the subconscious from various sources, even from advertising. It is worth understanding that 90% of all processes that happen to a person are controlled by the subconscious. And it is in the subconscious that our entire system of values ​​lies, which also contains attitudes laid down by our parents and other sources that are significant to us.

Now people hear about the infection every day and that the trend towards infection is growing, more and more patients are becoming sick throughout the country. And some people begin to get the feeling that everyone is getting sick and I, too, will probably get sick soon. The body begins to fall into stress and begins to experience it internally, so it may begin to seem that it hurts both here and there. For a person with weak boundaries, such information is more harmful. And a person can really die from a heart attack, simply because he is afraid.

Don't panic. How to be calm when everyone is talking only about the virus? More details

Physiology

A patient whose amygdala was destroyed due to Urbach-Wiethe disease showed a complete absence of fear [28][29][30].

Two neural pathways of fear

The development of fear is determined by two neural pathways that, ideally, function simultaneously. The first of them, responsible for the development of basic emotions, reacts quickly and is accompanied by a large number of errors. The second one reacts more slowly, but more accurately[31].

Fast way

The first way allows us to quickly respond to danger signs, but often triggers as a false alarm. The second way allows us to more accurately assess the situation and respond to the danger more accurately. In this case, the feeling of fear initiated by the first pathway is blocked by the functioning of the second pathway, which evaluates certain signs of danger as unreal.

In the first path (low, short, subcortical), the emotional stimulus, reflected in the sensitive nuclei of the visual thalamus, closes on the amygdala nuclei of the visual thalamus, causing an emotional response.

A long way

In the second path (high, long, cortical), the emotional stimulus, reflected in the sensitive nuclei of the thalamus, ascends to the sensory parts of the cerebral cortex and from them is sent to the nuclei of the amygdala (almond-shaped) complex, forming an emotional response.

With phobias, the second pathway functions inadequately, which leads to the development of a feeling of fear in response to stimuli that do not pose a threat.

Physiology[ | ]

The amygdala is responsible for fear in the human brain. A patient whose amygdala was completely destroyed due to Urbach-Wiethe disease showed a lack of fear [31][32][33].

Two neural pathways of fear[ | ]

The development of fear is determined by two neural pathways that, ideally, function simultaneously. The first of them, responsible for the development of basic emotions, reacts quickly and is accompanied by a large number of errors. The second one reacts more slowly, but more accurately[34].

Fast path[ | ]

The first way allows us to quickly respond to danger signs, but often triggers as a false alarm. The second way allows us to more accurately assess the situation and respond to the danger more accurately. In this case, the feeling of fear initiated by the first pathway is blocked by the functioning of the second pathway, which evaluates certain signs of danger as unreal.

In the first path (low, short, subcortical), the emotional stimulus, reflected in the sensitive nuclei of the visual thalamus, closes on the amygdala nuclei of the visual thalamus, causing an emotional response.

Long way[ | ]

In the second path (high, long, cortical), the emotional stimulus, reflected in the sensitive nuclei of the thalamus, ascends to the sensory parts of the cerebral cortex and from them is sent to the nuclei of the amygdala (almond-shaped) complex, forming an emotional response.

With phobias, the second pathway functions inadequately, which leads to the development of a feeling of fear in response to stimuli that do not pose a threat.

Extinguishing the memory of fear

The main problem of diseases caused by stress is the inability of patients to inhibit the manifestation of memory of unpleasant events[32]. Therefore, when treating diseases caused by long-term persistence of fear reactions, doctors use a procedure for extinguishing the memory of fear (for example, presenting the patient with objects or situations that cause fear in the absence of any threat)[33].

Extinction is not the forgetting of fear. The differences in the extinction process are as follows[34]:

• During extinction, a new memory trace is formed;
• Extinction is the result of an altered hierarchy of newly learned responses when the newly acquired behavior replaces the previously formed conditioned response.

Notes

1. ↑ 12
   Fear // Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language: in 4 volumes / author's compilation. V. I. Dal. — 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg. : Printing house of M. O. Wolf, 1880-1882.
2. Leontyev, Alexey Nikolaevich. Needs, motives and emotions
   (Russian). - Moscow, 1971.
3. ↑ 1234
   Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 9
4. ↑ 12
   Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 7
5. Izard, Carol Ellis.
   Theory of differential emotions //
   Psychology of emotions
   = The Psychology of Emotions. - Peter, 2007. - P. 54. - 464 p. - (Masters of Psychology). — 3000 copies. — ISBN 5-314-00067-9 ISBN 978-5-314-00067-0.
6. Izard, Carol Ellis.
   Fear and anxiety.
   // Psychology of emotions
   = The Psychology of Emotions. - Peter, 2007. - P. 292. - 464 p. - (Masters of Psychology). — 3000 copies. — ISBN 5-314-00067-9 ISBN 978-5-314-00067-0.
7. Goryanina V. A.
   Psychology of communication: A textbook for students of higher educational institutions. - M.: Publishing House, 2002. - 416 p.
8. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. 10th revision = International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision. - M.: Medicine, 2003. - T. 1-4. — 2440 s. — 2000 copies. — ISBN 5-225-03268-0, ISBN 5-225-03269-9, ISBN 5-225-03280-X.
9. Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 12
10. Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 11
11. Saulskaya N. B., Fofonova N. V., Sudorgina P. V.
    Effect of blockade of D2 receptors by domafin on the level of extracellular citrulline in the nucleus accumbens during the implementation of the conditioned reflex reaction of fear // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2008. - T. 58. - No. 5. - P. 596.
12. Saulskaya N. B., Fofonova N. V., Sudorgina P. V.
    Effect of blockade of D2 receptors by domafin on the level of extracellular citrulline in the nucleus accumbens during the implementation of the conditioned reflex reaction of fear // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2008. - T. 58. - No. 5. - P. 596-597.
13. ↑ 1 2 3 Saulskaya N. B., Fofonova N. V., Sudorgina P. V.
    Effect of blockade of D2 receptors by domafin on the level of extracellular citrulline in the nucleus accumbens during the implementation of the conditioned reflex reaction of fear // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2008. - T. 58. - No. 5. - P. 603.
14. Rysakova M.P., Pavlova I.V.
    Interaction and character of impulses of neurons in the amygdala of rabbits during unconditional fear, expressed in the form of hiding // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2009. - T. 59. - No. 6. - P. 717.
15. ↑ 1 2 Rysakova M.P., Pavlova I.V.
    Interaction and character of impulses of neurons in the amygdala of rabbits during unconditional fear, expressed in the form of hiding // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2009. - T. 59. - No. 6. - P. 708.
16. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
    The influence of the introduction of an agonist and antagonist of GABAA receptors into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala on the manifestation and extinction of fear in rats with different durations of concealment // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2014. - T. 64. - No. 4. - P. 468 - 469.
17. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
    Effect of administration of GABAA receptor agonist and antagonist into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala on the manifestation and extinction of fear in rats with different durations of concealment // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2014. - T. 64. - No. 4. - P. 460.
18. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
    Effect of administration of GABAA receptor agonist and antagonist into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala on the manifestation and extinction of fear in rats with different durations of concealment // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2014. - T. 64. - No. 4. - P. 461.
19. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
    Effect of administration of GABAA receptor agonist and antagonist into the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala on the manifestation and extinction of fear in rats with different durations of concealment // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2014. - T. 64. - No. 4. - P. 464.
20. Journal "Questions of Philosophy" - Fears in life and living in fear
21. The influence of fear on life expectancy (Russian). gormonys.ru. Retrieved August 25, 2020.
22. Aksenova A. A. Authorization as a mode of fear // Vestn. Volume. state un-ta. Philosophy. Sociology. Political science. 2020. No. 2 (34). URL: [1]
23. Morgunova L.N., Musina A.N., Shirinskikh T.V. Children's fears // Development of modern education: theory, methodology and practice. - 2020. - No. 4 (6). — P. 431
24. Kolpakova A. S., Pronina E. V. Children’s fears and their causes in children of primary school age // Almanac of modern science and education. - 2014. - No. 4 (83). — P. 84
25. Morgunova L.N., Musina A.N., Shirinskikh T.V. Children's fears // Development of modern education: theory, methodology and practice. - 2020. - No. 4 (6). — P. 431
26. Petrova M.V. Resources of social and cultural activities of children's public organizations in overcoming social fears among adolescents // Modern problems of science and education. — 2014. — No. 6. — P. 712
27. Shcherbatykh Yu.V.
    Get rid of fear. - M.: Eksmo, 2011. - 304 p. ISBN 978-5-699-45683-3
28. Feinstein, Adolphs, Damasio and Tranel
    The Human Amygdala and the Induction and Experience of Fear - Current Biology, Published online: December 16, 2010
29. Richard Alleyne
    A woman with no fear could help traumatised soldiers - The Telegraph, 16.12.10
30. A unique case: a woman who has no fear lives in the USA - NEWSru.com, 12/17/10
31. Joseph le Doux. The Emotional Brain
    . Weidenfield & Nicholson Ltd., London 1998
32. Dubrovina N.I.
    Extinction of the memory of fear in experimental models of depression // Advances in physiological sciences. - 2011. - T. 42. - No. 1. - P. 56.
33. Dubrovina N.I.
    Extinction of the memory of fear in experimental models of depression // Advances in physiological sciences. - 2011. - T. 42. - No. 1. - P. 56.
34. Dubrovina N.I.
    Extinction of the memory of fear in experimental models of depression // Advances in physiological sciences. - 2011. - T. 42. - No. 1. - P. 57.

Notes[ | ]

1. ↑ 12
   Fear // Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language: in 4 volumes / author's compilation. V. I. Dal. — 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg. : Printing house of M. O. Wolf, 1880-1882.
2. Leontyev, Alexey Nikolaevich. Needs, motives and emotions
   (Russian). - Moscow, 1971.
3. ↑ 1234
   Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 9
4. ↑ 12
   Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 7
5. Izard, Carol Ellis.
   Theory of differential emotions //
   Psychology of emotions
   = The Psychology of Emotions. - Peter, 2007. - P. 54. - 464 p. - (Masters of Psychology). — 3000 copies. — ISBN 5-314-00067-9 ISBN 978-5-314-00067-0. Archived copy from January 11, 2010 on the Wayback Machine
6. Izard, Carol Ellis.
   Fear and anxiety.
   // Psychology of emotions
   = The Psychology of Emotions. - Peter, 2007. - P. 292. - 464 p. - (Masters of Psychology). — 3000 copies. — ISBN 5-314-00067-9 ISBN 978-5-314-00067-0. Archived copy from January 11, 2010 on the Wayback Machine
7. Goryanina V. A.
   Psychology of communication: A textbook for students of higher educational institutions. - M.: Publishing House, 2002. - 416 p.
8. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems. 10th revision = International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: Tenth Revision. - M.: Medicine, 2003. - T. 1-4. — 2440 s. — 2000 copies. — ISBN 5-225-03268-0, ISBN 5-225-03269-9, ISBN 5-225-03280-X.
9. Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 12
10. Zakharov A.I. Daytime and nighttime fears in children. - St. Petersburg: Soyuz, 2000. - P. 11
11. Fear as a cultural phenomenon (undefined)
    . cyberleninka.ru. Date accessed: June 30, 2020.
12. Saulskaya N. B., Fofonova N. V., Sudorgina P. V.
    Effect of blockade of D2 receptors by domafin on the level of extracellular citrulline in the nucleus accumbens during the implementation of the conditioned reflex reaction of fear // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2008. - T. 58. - No. 5. - P. 596.
13. Saulskaya N. B., Fofonova N. V., Sudorgina P. V.
    Effect of blockade of D2 receptors by domafin on the level of extracellular citrulline in the nucleus accumbens during the implementation of the conditioned reflex reaction of fear // Journal of Higher Nervous Activity. - 2008. - T. 58. - No. 5. - P. 596-597.
14. ↑ 1 2 3 Saulskaya N. B., Fofonova N. V., Sudorgina P. V.
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16. ↑ 1 2 Rysakova M.P., Pavlova I.V.
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18. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
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19. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
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20. Pavlova I.V., Rysakova M.P.
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