Individual personality traits
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The concept of an individual contains an indication of a person’s similarity to all other people, of his commonality with the human race. The specificity of human individuality is mediated by the entire history of the Homosapiens species, which is refracted in the hereditary program. From the moment of his birth, an individual is the bearer of a specifically human biology, shaped by previous development in phylogeny.
Individual properties of a person are of interest to psychology to the extent that they manifest themselves in the formation, development and functioning of the human personality. The natural, bodily properties of a person constitute a prerequisite
and
the conditions
for the development of his inner world, the formation of specifically human abilities.
The classification of natural human properties is most fully described by B.G. Ananyev.
Primary level of manifestation of individual properties:
1. Class of age-sex properties:
– age properties
, consistently unfolding in the process of becoming an individual,
– sexual dimorphism –
the fundamental division of human organic properties into two qualitatively different forms: male and female. Sexual dimorphism is a physical difference between the sexes that is biologically determined. The study of sexual dimorphism and its manifestations in various spheres of personality behavior is of interest for the psychology of sexual differences. The biological sex of an individual is a prerequisite for the formation of a person’s psychological sex, but does not unambiguously determine it. The formation of a person’s gender identity is one of the manifestations of his socialization;
2. Individual-typical properties of an individual:
– constitutional features
: physique and biochemical personality,
– neurodynamic properties of the brain, functional organization of brain activity.
The secondary level of individual properties represents the result of the interaction of properties of the primary level and includes the dynamics of psychophysiological functions
(sensory, mnemonic, etc.) and
the structure of organic needs;
The highest level of integration of individual human properties: temperament and inclinations
.
The main form of development of these properties is ontogenetic evolution, carried out according to a certain phylogenetic program, but constantly changing under the influence of the social history of mankind. As the ontogenetic stages themselves unfold, the factor of individual variability increases, which is associated with the active influence of the social properties of the individual on the structural and dynamic characteristics of the individual.
Temperament is one of the main individual characteristics. Under temperament
understand the dynamic characteristics of mental activity. There are three areas of manifestation of temperament: general activity, characteristics of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality:
general activity
determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment – physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous, etc.
features of the motor sphere
can be considered as particular expressions of general activity. These include tempo, speed of rhythm and total number of movements, etc.
emotionality:
impressionability, sensitivity and impulsiveness.
The founders of the doctrine of temperaments were the doctors N. Hippocrates and C. Galen. They created, in essence, a humoral (from the Latin humor - moisture, juice) theory of temperament. The word "temperament" itself means "proper proportion of parts." The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates believed that some people have a predominance of bile (chole), others have the most blood (sanguinis), others have a particularly large amount of mucus (phlegma) and, finally, others have the greatest amount of black bile (melanoschole).
K. Galen identified four types of temperament, which in our time are considered as the main ones: choleric (stormy, impetuous, hot and sharp), sanguine (lively, active, emotional and responsive), phlegmatic (calm, sluggish, slow and stable) and melancholic (sad, depressed, timid and indecisive).
An attempt to establish a connection between the structure of an individual's body and his temperament was made by the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer . In his work “Body Structure and Character,” he argued that each constitution corresponds to a certain psychological make-up of a person. Based on clinical observations, he came to establish a connection between body types and character types. E. Kretschmer identified three main body types and three corresponding types of temperaments.
1. Asthenic type
constitution is characterized by a long and narrow chest, long limbs, weak muscles, an elongated face and corresponds to
a schizoid
temperament. Schizotimics are autistic people, that is, they are self-absorbed, withdrawn, show a tendency to excessive abstraction and do not adapt well to their environment.
2. Picnic type
constitution (Greek pyknos - thick, dense) is characterized by a broad chest, stocky, broad figure, plumpness, round head, short neck and corresponds to a
cycloid
(cyclothymic) temperament. Cyclothymic people are sociable, have a realistic view of the world and are prone to mood swings from constantly elevated, from a cheerful state of mind in manic subjects to a constantly reduced, sad state of mind in depressive subjects.
3. Athletic type
constitution (Greek athlon - fight, fight) is characterized by strong muscles, proportional physique, wide shoulder girdle, narrow hips and corresponds to an
epileptoid
temperament. Epileptoids express emotions with restrained facial expressions and gestures, are outwardly calm and calm, but at times they are subject to outbursts of anger and rage for inappropriate reasons. They are characterized by low flexibility of thinking, are petty and difficult to adapt to changes in the environment.
Constitutional theories also include the concept of the American psychologist W. Sheldon,
which distinguishes three main types of somatic constitution:
endomorphic
(with a predominant development of internal organs, a weak, baggy physique and excess adipose tissue),
mesomorphic
(with developed muscle tissue, a strong, strong body) and
ectomorphic
(with a fragile physique, weak muscles, long arms and legs) , which correspond to three types of temperament: viscerotonia, somatotonia and cerebrotonia.
The constitutional typologies of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon and the attempts made in them to connect the body type with the psychological characteristics of the individual were criticized for the desire to directly link the body type, determined genotypically, with the character and temperament of a person, i.e. with the psychological make-up of the individual.
It is impossible to deny the connection between body types and certain character traits and social behavior of an individual. However, one should not look for the nature of this connection in hereditary conditioning. Body features in themselves do not determine the development of a person’s mental qualities. They can act as organic prerequisites that influence the formation of mental characteristics, and actually manifest their influence in the system of interpersonal relations of carriers of bodily qualities.
For example, studies have revealed that W. Sheldon’s three somatotypes (endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic) are unequally attractive in the eyes of adolescents. The most attractive is the mesomorphic type, and the least attractive is the endomorphic type. Teenagers associate the qualities of a leader, athleticism, and activity with a slender, muscular body. An overweight teenager, on the contrary, is the subject of their ridicule. Such adolescents rarely occupy a leading position among their peers, have fewer choices of friends, and more often feel the need for support.
I.P. Pavlov drew attention to the dependence of temperament on the type of nervous system. Studying the three main parameters of the processes of excitation and inhibition (strength - weakness, balance - imbalance, mobility - inertia) and a large number of their possible combinations in nature, he established the four most pronounced types of the nervous system, three of which are strong (unrestrained, living, calm) and one – weak. Pavlov put their manifestations in behavior in direct connection with the ancient classification of temperament. A strong, balanced, mobile type of nervous system was considered by him as the corresponding temperament of a sanguine person
;
phlegmatic
temperament
choleric
temperament weak –
melancholic
.
About the strength of the nervous system
a person is said to have high performance, a sufficient degree of restraint in expressing feelings, the ability to wait and listen to others, initiative and perseverance in achieving goals. The weakness of the nervous system is evidenced by opposite properties, i.e. increased fatigue, lack of initiative, suggestibility, tearfulness, timidity.
Equilibrium
nervous processes is manifested in the absence of a tendency to irritability, mood swings and affective outbursts. Imbalance is in the inability to wait and sleep disturbances.
Mobility
nervous processes are determined by the speed of adaptation to a new environment, mental mobility, vivacity of motor skills and speech articulation, speed of falling asleep and waking up.
Domestic psychologists ( B.M. Teplov , V.D. Nebylitsin , V.S. Merlin , etc.) note that the primary scientific significance of the works of I.P. Pavlov’s goal is to clarify the role of the properties of the nervous system as the primary and deepest parameters of the psychophysiological organization of the individual. However, modern research shows that the very structure of the properties of the nervous system as neurophysiological dimensions of temperament is much more complex, and the number of combinations of these properties is much greater than what was proposed by I.P. Pavlov.
Modern ideas about temperament make it possible to define it as a formal-dynamic characteristic of human behavior, manifested in the general activity of a person’s interaction with the outside world and the emotional attitude towards its process and results.
V.M. Rusalov identifies seven criteria of temperament:
1) dependence on the content of activity and behavior, i.e., a reflection of their formal aspect (independence of meaning, motive, goal, etc.);
2) characteristic is a measure of dynamic tension and a person’s relationship to the world, people, himself, and activity;
3) universality and manifestation in all areas of activity;
4) early manifestation in childhood;
5) stability over a long period of human life;
6) a high level of correlation with the properties of the nervous system and the properties of other biological subsystems (humoral, bodily, etc.);
7) heritability.
From the understanding of temperament as a formal-dynamic characteristic of the psyche, it follows that there are no “good” and “bad” temperaments; each temperament in specific types of activity has both its advantages and disadvantages.
Temperament, being individual personality traits, has a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior. Temperament is the dynamic side of character, its physiological basis.
Character and abilities
Character is a holistic formation of a person that determines the characteristics of a person’s activity and behavior and is characterized by a stable attitude towards various aspects of activity.
Character expresses the most typical, essential characteristics of a person, knowledge of which allows us to some extent foresee how a person will act in certain cases. The formation of character occurs under conditions of inclusion of the individual in social groups of various levels of development (family, friendly companies, work or educational teams, etc.). Character is determined by the social existence of the individual, the assimilation of social experience, the formation of a certain system of a person’s relationship to reality and to himself. Typical character traits are determined by the typical circumstances of a person’s life path in specific historical conditions.
Character in the narrow sense of the word is defined as a set of stable properties of an individual, which express the ways of his behavior and methods of emotional response.
Translated from Greek, “character” means “seal”, “minting”. The expression “this is characteristic of him” means that certain actions and actions of a person are typical and natural for him. A person’s character leaves a certain imprint on his behavior and relationships with other people. Character concentrates the most expressed, most essential features of a person as a subject of activity, communication, and cognition.
Character, however, does not include all stable properties that are distinguished and fixed in a person. It includes only those properties that express a person’s attitude to the main aspects of life and activity. Character is manifested in what a person does and how he does it, that is, character can be expressed both in the content and in the form of behavior.
Character, like temperament, depends on the physiological characteristics of a person, and above all on the type of nervous system. The properties of temperament leave their mark on the formation of character, determining the dynamic features of its occurrence, that is, temperament represents the dynamic side of character. Features of temperament can counteract or promote the development of certain characterological traits.
Character is a lifetime acquisition of personality; it accumulates a person’s habits and is largely the result of self-education. Temperament does not unilaterally and definitively determine the path of development of specific character traits; temperament itself, within certain limits, is transformed under the influence of character properties. The development of character and temperament in this sense are interdependent processes. In character, a personality is revealed from the side of its content, in temperament - from the side of dynamic manifestations.
Character is not a simple aggregate, a random collection of isolated traits. It is a complex mental formation consisting of a system of numerous stable personality traits that express a person’s attitude towards the world around him, work, other people and himself. These relationships are enshrined in human forms of behavior, activity and communication. Regular relationships between individual character traits express its structure. The structure of character allows, knowing this or that trait, to assume that a given person has a number of other traits.
The structure of character is also expressed in a certain hierarchy of its traits. This means that among character traits, some are basic, defining and leading, while others are secondary, less significant. The main, leading, traits, to one degree or another, subordinate the secondary, less significant ones, causing their varying degrees of manifestation in certain situations.
The system of relationships expresses the content of character, its individual uniqueness. The structure of characterological relationships consists mainly of a person’s relationship to his business and work, to the people around him, as well as to himself.
In relation to your activities
, work can manifest such character traits as hard work or laziness, neatness or negligence, a sense of newness or conservatism, enthusiasm or a formal attitude towards work.
In interpersonal relationships
a person’s sociability or isolation, collectivism or individualism, politeness or rudeness, truthfulness or deceitfulness, etc. are manifested.
In a person's relationship to himself
character is indicative of high demands or complacency, self-criticism or exaggerated conceit, modesty or arrogance, self-esteem or its underestimation.
In addition, character traits related to the characteristics of the cognitive, emotional and volitional spheres of a person are identified.
To cognitive character traits
include a mindset (theoretical or practical) and qualities of the mind (analyticity, criticality, flexibility, etc.).
To emotional character traits
include passion, sentimentality, as well as traits based on moral feelings: patriotism, humanity, etc.
In strong-willed character traits
(purposefulness, endurance, perseverance, courage, etc.) is expressed in the attitude towards obstacles. Strong-willed character traits cannot be assessed without taking into account the orientation of the individual. They are valuable only under the condition of a morally educated will aimed at achieving socially useful goals. Strong-willed traits are sometimes called the “backbone” of character and, depending on their development, character is classified as a strong or weak type. A person who always acts in accordance with his convictions, consistently behaves in various, including difficult, conditions, and shows persistence in achieving his goals has a strong character. Weakness of character is manifested in inconsistency of behavior, in discrepancies between words and deeds, in fear of difficulties.
When assessing character, identifying its stability or instability is important. A person with a stable character
the attitudes, beliefs, habits and other characteristics inherent in it are preserved for a long time.
With an unstable character,
views, beliefs and attitudes change quickly.
The system of relationships that make up the structure of character in some cases is characterized by the quality of integrity, in others – by inconsistency. Whole
The character of a person whose individual thoughts, feelings, views, and actions are consistent with each other and correspond to his beliefs.
Conviction determines the integrity of a person’s behavior, confidence in the justice and importance of the cause to which he devotes all his strength. A person with a contradictory (disharmonious)
character is distinguished by the presence of views and beliefs, goals and motives, aspirations, desires and actions that are incompatible with each other.
Character is a very complex formation. In real life, there are many shades and transitions between different polar features of character traits in people’s characters, which explains the endless variety of characters and the dissimilarity of people from each other.
An important characteristic of a person is also her abilities - individual psychological characteristics that determine the success of an activity or a series of activities, irreducible to knowledge, skills and abilities, which determine the ease and speed of learning new ways and techniques of activity.
B.M. Teplov proposed separating inclinations and abilities. In this case, the inclinations are defined by the researcher as innate, physiological characteristics of a person, which serve as the natural basis for the development of abilities. They represent conditions for the development of abilities, but do not predetermine giftedness. In the process of mental development of the individual, inclinations are transformed and changed.
Several criteria are used to classify abilities. According to the criterion of the type of mental functional systems, abilities are divided into sensorimotor, perceptual, attentional, mnemonic, imaginative, mental, communicative; according to the criterion of the main type of activity - scientific ( mathematical, linguistic
etc.);
creative ( musical, literary, artistic
); engineering, etc. In addition, a distinction is made between general and special abilities. General abilities are associated with the implementation of leading forms of human activity, and special abilities are associated with individual activities. Among general abilities, most researchers highlight general intelligence, creativity (the general ability to create) and, less often, learning ability.
The results of psychogenetic studies indicate a high level of heritability of general intelligence and some special abilities (in particular, mathematical, musical). Meanwhile, creativity largely depends on the influence of the social microenvironment. A high level of development of general (special) abilities is characterized as general or special giftedness , or talent .
The highest degree of development of an individual’s abilities, expressed in creativity, which is of outstanding importance for the life of society, is genius . A genius is characterized by extreme creative productivity, mastery of the cultural heritage of the past and, at the same time, a decisive overcoming of outdated norms and traditions. A person of genius, through his creative activity, contributes to the progressive development of society.
Psychological research has shown that, based on early diagnosis of general abilities, it is possible to give a probabilistic forecast of the success of an individual’s social and professional career.
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COMPREHENSIVE, HOLISTIC PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT- such an active development of the riches of public culture, in which the work of each member of the society turns into an integral activity, into amateur performance
(Communist labor)
, and each person becomes an amateur and creative person.
This is possible only as a result of overcoming such a social division of labor
, which disfigures a person, turns him into a performer of a narrow labor function assigned to him, thereby making him one-sided, “partial”.
Characterizing communism as a society that presupposes the development of “individuals into integral individuals,” Marx and Engels emphasized that this is not an arbitrary utopian ideal, but a real resolution of the real contradictions of the system of division of labor (vol. 3, pp. 68-69). Under capitalism, the splitting and fragmentation of human activity has created a mass of professional occupations, devoid not only of creativity, but generally of any content and meaning. Functions of this kind (for example, formal bureaucratic ones), generated by antagonistic social relations, represent aspects of labor that are incompatible with the activities of an integral, communist person. To become a subject and creator of social relations, a person must combine in his daily activity only those and all those aspects of it that make it a meaningful and creative process. To do this, it is not at all necessary for each person to be able and know everything that other people can and know, which is the property of the society as a whole. Yes, this is impossible: the progress of the productive forces gives rise to a growing wealth of specializations. But under communism, this will be a specialization of activity, in which there is no division between physical and mental, executive and managerial labor, as well as professional consolidation of occupations, the opposition between working and free (more precisely, given at individual disposal) time, the gap between cognitive, artistic and moral culture. This is achieved not by mechanically combining and concentrating in one person all and any labor functions, specialties, etc., but by developing the true comprehensiveness of a person, which makes independent administrative-control, distribution, security, etc. functions unnecessary over people. The person himself, in the process of work, masters these functions, including them in his integral activity as auxiliary functions, thereby becoming a universal and creative subject. If, even under capitalism, large industry, capital flows and other factors require “the greatest possible versatility of workers” (Marx), then the communist formation requires not just versatility, but integrity, harmonious human development. Basic the principle of communism “is the complete and free development of each individual” (K. Marx and F. Engels, vol. 23, p. 605). TO WORD LIST
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