Subject and principles of child psychology educational and methodological material
Subject and principles of child psychology 1. Subject of child psychology
Child psychology, along with other sciences (pedagogy, physiology, pediatrics, etc.), studies the child, but has its own special subject, which is the development of the psyche throughout childhood. Childhood, according to the periodization adopted in Russian psychology (D.B. Elkonii), covers three large eras: early childhood - the age from birth to 3 years, childhood - from 3 to 10 years, and adolescence. Preschool psychology, being an integral part of child psychology, studies the mental development of a child during the first 7 years of life.
The specificity of studying a child in psychology is that it is not so much mental processes and qualities themselves that are studied, but the laws of their occurrence and formation. Child psychology shows the mechanisms of transition from one age stage to another, the distinctive features of each period and their psychological content.
Mental development cannot be considered as a decrease or increase in any indicators, as a simple repetition of what was before. Mental development involves the emergence of new qualities and functions and at the same time a change in already existing forms of the psyche. That is, mental development acts as a process of quantitative and qualitative changes that occur interconnectedly in the sphere of activity, personality and cognition. The continuity of development of the psyche is interrupted when qualitatively new acquisitions appear in it and it makes a sharp leap.
Consequently, the development of the psyche is not a simple repetition of what has been passed, but a very complex, often zigzag process, proceeding in an upward spiral, like a progressive transition from one stage to another, qualitatively different and original.
Mental development involves not only growth, but also transformations, in which quantitative complications turn into qualitative ones. And the new quality, in turn, creates the basis for further quantitative changes.
2. Basic patterns of mental development
The development of each mental function, each form of behavior is subject to its own characteristics, but mental development as a whole has general patterns that manifest themselves in all spheres of the psyche and persist throughout ontogeny. When speaking about the patterns of mental development, we mean a description and explanation not of random facts, but of the main, significant trends that determine the course of this process.
Firstly, mental development is characterized by unevenness and heterochrony. Each mental function has a special tempo and rhythm of development. Some of them seem to “go” ahead of the rest, preparing the ground for others. Then those functions that were “lagging behind” acquire priority in development and create the basis for further complication of mental activity. For example, in the first months of infancy, the senses develop most intensively, and later, on their basis, objective actions are formed. In early childhood, actions with objects turn into a special type of activity - object-manipulative, during which active speech, visual-effective thinking and pride in one's own achievements develop.
The periods that are most favorable for the development of one or another aspect of the psyche, when its sensitivity to a certain kind of influence intensifies, are called sensitive. Functions develop most successfully and intensively. The threshold for mastering a native language is the age from 2 to 5 years, when the child actively expands his vocabulary, masters the laws of grammar of his native language, eventually moving on to coherent speech.
Secondly, mental development proceeds in stages, having a complex organization in time. Each age stage has its own pace and rhythm, which does not coincide with the pace and rhythm of time and changes in different years of life. Thus, a year of life in infancy, in its objective meaning and the transformations that occur, is not equal to a year of life in adolescence. Mental development occurs most rapidly in early childhood - from birth to 3 years.
The stages of mental development follow one another in a certain way, obeying their own internal logic. Their sequence cannot be rearranged or changed at the request of an adult. Any age stage makes its own unique contribution, and therefore has its own enduring significance for the mental development of the child and has its own value. Therefore, it is important not to accelerate, but to enrich mental development, to expand, as A.V. Zaporozhets emphasized, the child’s capabilities in the types of life activities inherent in a given age. After all, only the realization of all the possibilities of a given age ensures the transition to a new stage of development.
A child of a certain age occupies a special place in the system of social relations. And the transition from one stage of development to another is, first of all, a transition to a new, qualitatively higher and deeper connection between the child and society, of which he is a part and without which he cannot live (A.V. Zaporozhets).
The characteristics of the stages of mental development are the social situation of development, the main new formations and leading activities.
The social situation of development is understood as the relationship between external and internal conditions for the development of the psyche (L.S. Vygotsky). It determines the child’s attitude towards other people, objects, things created by humanity, and towards himself.
Age-related neoplasms are a new type of personality structure and its activity, mental changes that arise at a given age and determine transformations in the child’s consciousness, his internal and external life. These are those positive acquisitions that allow you to move to a new stage of development.
Each age is characterized by leading activity, which provides cardinal lines of mental development precisely during this period (A.N. Leontyev). It most fully presents the typical relationship between a child and an adult for a given age, and through this his attitude to reality. Leading activities connect children with elements of the surrounding reality, which at a given period are sources of mental development. In this activity, the main personal new formations are formed, the restructuring of mental processes occurs and the emergence of new types of activities. So, for example, in objective activities at an early age, “pride in one’s own achievements”, active speech are formed, the prerequisites for the emergence of playful and productive activities are formed, elements of visual forms of thinking and sign-symbolic functions arise.
The true content of mental development is the struggle of internal contradictions, the struggle between obsolete forms of the psyche and new emerging ones (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, etc.). Internal contradictions act as the driving forces of mental development. They differ at each age and at the same time occur within the framework of one, main contradiction, between the child’s need to be an adult, to live a common life with him, to occupy a certain place in the life of society, to demonstrate independence and the lack of real opportunities to satisfy it. At the level of the child’s consciousness, it appears as a discrepancy between “I want” and “I can.” This contradiction leads to the assimilation of new knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities, and the development of new ways of activity, which allows the boundaries of independence to expand and the level of capabilities to increase. In turn, expanding the boundaries of possibilities leads the child to the “discovery” of more and more new areas of adult life that are not yet available to him, but where he strives to “enter.”
Thus, the resolution of some contradictions leads to the emergence of others. As a result, the child establishes increasingly diverse and broad connections with the world, and the forms of his effective and cognitive reflection of reality are transformed. L.S. Vygotsky formulated the basic law of mental development as follows: “The forces driving the development of a child at a given age inevitably lead to the denial and destruction of the very basis of development of the entire age, with internal necessity determining the annulment of the social situation of development, the end of a given era development and transition to the next, or higher, age level.”
Thirdly, in the course of mental development, differentiation and integration of processes, properties and qualities occurs. Differentiation consists in the fact that they are separated from each other, turning into independent forms or activities. Thus, memory is separated from perception and becomes an independent mnemonic activity.
Integration ensures the establishment of relationships between individual aspects of the psyche. Thus, cognitive processes, having gone through a period of differentiation, establish relationships with each other at a higher, qualitatively new level. In particular, the relationship of memory with speech and thinking ensures its intellectualization. Consequently, these two opposing trends are interconnected and do not exist without each other.
Associated with differentiation and integration is cumulation, which involves the accumulation of individual indicators that prepare qualitative changes in different areas of the child’s psyche.
Fourthly, during mental development there is a change in determinants - the causes that determine it. On the one hand, the relationship between biological and social determinants is changing. On the other hand, the relationship between different social determinants also becomes different. At each age stage, conditions are prepared for the child to master certain types of activities, and special relationships develop with adults and peers. In particular, as they grow older, contacts with friends increasingly begin to influence the mental development of a preschooler.
Fifthly, the psyche is characterized by plasticity, which makes it possible for it to change under the influence of any conditions and to assimilate various experiences. Thus, a born child can master any language, regardless of his nationality, and in accordance with
the speech environment in which he will be brought up. One of the manifestations of plasticity is the compensation of mental or physical functions in case of their absence or underdevelopment, for example, with deficiencies of vision, hearing, and motor functions. Another manifestation of plasticity is imitation. Recently, it has been viewed as a unique form of orienting a child in the world of specifically human activities, methods of communication and personal qualities by assimilating and modeling them in his own activities (L.F. Obukhova, I.V. Shapovalenko).
Principles of studying the child’s psyche
The specificity of the methods of child psychology is determined by the specificity of its object. This is the development of the child’s psyche from birth to seven years, which during this period is most vulnerable and susceptible to external adverse influences. Rough interference from adults can slow down or distort the course of a child’s mental development. Therefore, the main principle of the study of child psychology is the principle of humanism and pedagogical optimism, which consists in the requirement not to harm. The psychologist must feel a special responsibility and take his time; the main thing is to understand the true reasons for the child’s behavior, highlight psychological characteristics and patterns, while showing a tactful, sensitive, and caring attitude towards the child.
The principle of effectiveness and scientificity implies the study of psychological development, its mechanisms and patterns in the concepts of child psychology, and not from the point of view of other sciences. It should be borne in mind that a child is not a small adult, but a full-fledged person with his own vision of the world, way of thinking, content and expression of experiences. The inner world of a preschooler develops according to its own laws, which the researcher must comprehend. Therefore, before starting to study this world, it is necessary to master special psychological knowledge, concepts, and master the basic ideas of psychological science.
The principle of determinism proceeds from the fact that the formation of mental functions and properties, as well as the characteristics of their manifestation, are associated with both external and internal causes. These reasons are determined by the living conditions, the upbringing of the child, the characteristics of his social environment, the nature of the child’s communication with adults and peers, the specifics of his activities and activity. Initially, there are no “good” or “difficult” children; there are only a variety of reasons that influence the subsequent appearance of one or another trait inherent in this particular child. The researcher's task is to understand the cause of a psychological fact, and therefore explain it.
The principle of development of the psyche, consciousness in activity shows that activity acts as a condition for the manifestation and development of the child’s psyche. Therefore, to study his mental characteristics, it is necessary to organize appropriate activities, for example, creative imagination can be captured in drawing or when composing a fairy tale.
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity (developed by S.L. Rubinstein) means the mutual influence of consciousness and activity. On the one hand, consciousness is formed in activity and, as it were, “guides” it. On the other hand, the complication of activity, the development of new types of activity enriches and changes consciousness. Therefore, consciousness can be studied indirectly, through studying the child’s activities. Thus, the motives of behavior become clear from the analysis of actions.
The principle of an age-related individual and personal approach implies that the general laws of mental development manifest themselves in each child individually, including natural and special features. Each child masters speech, learns to walk, and operate with objects, but the path of his development is individual.
The principle of complexity, systematicity and systematicity suggests that a single study does not provide a complete picture of the child’s mental development. It is necessary to analyze not isolated facts, but to compare them, to trace all aspects of the development of the child’s psyche in the aggregate.
Book “An independent child, or How to become a lazy mother” (Anna Bykova)
The history of this book on child psychology began with a small article on the Internet, which caused a lot of controversy. The main problem of this publication is the slow maturation, as well as the complete lack of independence in children. But in order to overcome this infantilism, you need to create a certain atmosphere in the family. The author recommends becoming a “lazy mother” in the interests of the child. To evaluate the benefits of this book on child psychology, it is worth noting that the author, Anna Bykova, is the mother of two children. In addition, she has a psychological education. Having considerable teaching experience, she collected all her knowledge into a small book, which caused a real resonance. The book is written in a fairly simple and even cheerful language, which makes it easy to understand. Parents will learn how dangerous the excessive care and control that modern mothers and fathers often suffer from is. The author teaches mothers to be moderately lazy. At the same time, explanatory life examples are given for all key points. In order not to mislead readers, it is worth noting that a lazy mother is not a woman in a robe and curlers who spends days watching TV while the children are left to their own devices. This is a mother who gives a certain freedom to the child without relieving herself of responsibility. In addition, she does not forget about the need to rest and take care of herself. A lazy mother involves her child in all household chores (even if she has more work after this). Thus, she cannot be accused of indifference. This book helps parents develop an adequate approach to raising children. It helps to overcome fanatical love and get rid of the “cult of the child.” This publication can be criticized, but it is definitely worth reading.
Book “What to do if your child is driving you crazy” (Eda Le Shan)
When considering the best books on child psychology and education, one cannot ignore the work of Eda Le Shan. Many people associate the author with the famous Doctor Spock, which indicates the practical significance of her recommendations and observations. It is important to note that this book is fully adapted for modern parents. “If a Child is Driving You Crazy” is a collection of typical conflict situations that probably arise in any family. Naturally, children are their epicenter. The author teaches how to pull yourself together and find the right way out. In relation to each example, the main reasons for this or that deviant behavior of the child are considered. In addition, a number of valuable practical recommendations are provided. The book is written in fairly simple and understandable language. The sooner parents become familiar with its contents, the higher the likelihood that they will be able to avoid common mistakes in communicating with children. And even in the midst of a conflict situation, you can find practical advice by looking at this publication. Considering the value of the book, it is also recommended for teachers and child psychologists to read it.
Book “If it’s difficult with a child” (Lyudmila Petranovskaya)
Books about child psychology certainly touch on issues of complex relationships with parents. Motherhood or fatherhood is not only about pleasant family moments, but also about frequent conflicts and misunderstandings. At the same time, often, when trying to resolve a difficult situation, it can be aggravated even more. Petranovskaya, whose books have become reference books for many parents and teachers, teaches how to look at conflict calmly and come out of it with dignity in order to maintain good relationships in the family. The book contains up-to-date practical recommendations for raising children. At the same time, the author notes that not only children, but also parents themselves need it. This will help stop the permanent war that constantly occurs between the older and younger generations. The author explains that by trying to make their child more “comfortable,” parents make solving the problem even more difficult. In the work “If it’s difficult with a child,” the author pays close attention to the issues of punishment. Of course, you can’t let your child off the hook. Nevertheless, this must be done correctly (and even intelligently). The author examines popular methods of punishment, from which it becomes clear that many parents seek to “train” their children. The author teaches not to adjust them to oneself, but to form relationships that will be pleasant to both parties.
Book “Don't yell at children” (Daniele Novara)
Despite the fact that all the best books on child psychology prohibit raising your voice at children, in practice this is not so easy to do. No matter how old the child is, situations inevitably arise when parents cannot contain their emotions. Nevertheless, shouting not only does not help resolve the conflict, but even aggravates it. Daniele Novara teaches how to live such situations correctly, so as not only to get out of them without loud quarrels, but even to benefit from them. The book “Don't Yell at Children” is relevant for any age. It addresses the following key issues:
- resolve conflict situations with children without shouting or assault;
- raise children without belittling their own dignity and without resorting to an orderly tone;
- be able to find constructiveness in every conflict situation, extracting maximum benefit from it;
- build a system of family rules that will be interesting to follow not only for children, but also for all other family members.
The author of the book teaches parents to calmly perceive conflicts. Situations like this are not an aberration. This is the norm. The author teaches parents to be competent leaders who must be able to resolve any situation in the family. And shouting can only suppress the child’s personal qualities or, conversely, cause severe opposition.
The book “After Three It’s Too Late” (Masaru Ibuka)
The cutoff age determined by child psychology is 3 years. After Three It's Late explores the amazing abilities of young children. It turns out that babies are characterized by increased learning ability. At the same time, newborns are influenced not only by interactions with parents, but also by the environment. Thus, by the time a child is of conscious age, it is quite possible to impart the basic inclinations of correct behavior. The main feature of this book on practical child psychology is that it is adapted specifically for fathers. The author believes that there are educational moments that only a man can cope with. To make it easier for dads to perceive information, the book contains many practical recommendations and a minimum of lyrical digressions that women love so much.
