Disturbances within operational thinking
- Reduced level of generalization. This disorder is characterized by difficulty in generalizing features, that is, the patient is not capable of selecting features and properties that could generally characterize any concept. The construction of generalizations comes down to replacing them with individual features, specific connections with objects, random aspects in certain phenomena. This phenomenon is typical for epilepsy, encephalitis, mental retardation.
- Generalization distortion. This type of thinking disorder consists of an inability to establish the basic defining connection that applies to specific objects. A person identifies only random aspects in a specific phenomenon and connections of a secondary scale between objects. In principle, there are no cultural and generally accepted definitions for a patient. The combination of objects can be done on the basis of shape, material or color, that is, with the exception of their intended purpose and inherent functions. The listed features of thinking disorders are inherent in diseases such as psychopathy and schizophrenia.
E) Thinking disorders in childhood
Home Favorites Random article Educational New additions Feedback FAQThinking is the highest stage of cognitive activity, which is based on the processing of received information (sensations and perceptions), their analysis and synthesis. Works by L.S. Vygotsky, A.V. Zaporozhets, A.N. Leontyev and other teachers and psychologists have proven the close connection between various forms of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative, verbal-logical, developing gradually and consistently in childhood and adolescence.
The main mechanism of thinking is the operation with concepts
, which are processed, i.e.
identifying leading features, abstracting
and separating essential features from secondary ones.
Thinking in concepts is called abstract
. The word, being an exponent of thought and a means of communication, contains elements of abstraction.
This is how new, more complex links in cognitive activity arise—judgments and inferences. Judgment - thought
, in which something is affirmed or denied, relationships are established between objects and phenomena of reality on the basis of perceptions, ideas and concepts. The degree of independence of judgment, the ability to express one’s own, and not someone else’s, judgments is determined by the presence of the necessary knowledge. Mentally ill people and children with mental developmental disabilities are characterized by insufficient critical judgment. In a healthy person, thought precedes action and regulates actions. In people with mental disorders, the regulating property of thought is insufficient.
Inference
represents a form of thinking in which a new judgment in the form of a conclusion is derived from the content of several judgments of two premises. There are two main types of inferences: inductive, going from the particular to the general, and deductive, from the general to the particular.
In its physiological basis, judgments
and
inferences
are the result of cortical analysis and synthesis. The described stages of cognitive activity, the very process of processing received sensations, perceptions and ideas, i.e. thinking constitute a single process, formed reflexively according to the principle of a dynamic stereotype.
Closely related to thinking is the concept of intelligence , which is the ability to act intelligently, think rationally and cope well with life circumstances. “A person with intelligence is one who correctly judges, understands and reflects and who, thanks to his common sense and initiative, can adapt to the circumstances of life” (A. Binet, T. Simon 1905)” (quoted by D. N. Isaev, 2001).
The prerequisites for intelligence are all mental processes, their activity, exercise ability, and fatigue. There are concrete (practical) and abstract levels of intellectual activity. The origin of intelligence is associated with the hereditary base and the influence of the external environment.
Violation of the thought process can be mainly of two types: quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative thinking disorders , manifested in the form of limitation of mental activity or its underdevelopment with mental retardation (MDD) or mental retardation (oligophrenia). In adolescents and adults, the breakdown of mental activity - dementia, is observed with chronically ongoing mental processes.
Qualitative disorders of mental activity are observed in various neuroses and psychoses and manifest themselves in a disorder in the tempo of mental activity, obsession and delusions.
Violation of the tempo of mental activity is caused by the predominance of excitation or inhibition in the cerebral cortex.
Accelerated flow
thoughts, the so-called “leap of ideas” up to the fragmentation of thinking. In these cases, the formation and change of associations is accelerated, one image is replaced by another, and an influx of thoughts occurs. The flow of new ideas outpaces the formation of associative connections, as a result of which their sequence is disrupted. In severe cases, the loss of logical connections between parts of sentences increases. The main idea in the patient's statement is completely lost. Therefore, the entire thinking process is characterized by disorder, and statements become incomprehensible and absurd. The accelerated pace of thinking is combined with excited behavior, which fits into a certain manic syndrome.
Slow thinking process
observed when inhibition predominates in the cerebral cortex. Patients complain of a lack of thought, “one thought left, another did not come, there is some kind of emptiness in the head.” Such states are explained by the predominance of the inhibitory process, the appearance of inertia, and rigidity of thinking. A slowdown in the pace of mental activity is observed in depressive states.
Another form of disorder is thoroughness of thinking , detailing
, in which the patient moves away from the given topic, speaks in detail, repeats himself and cannot switch to the continuation of the main topic. Excessively detailed thinking, stuckness and poor switchability, viscosity of thinking are characteristic of children and adults with organic lesions of the central nervous system (epilepsy, psychoorganic defect).
Reasoning is the bottom of the forms of thinking disorders, in which the patient does not answer the question asked, but begins to reason and lecture the interlocutor. In this case, the patient’s verbal production can be lengthy and distant from the essence of the issue (vain talk, emasculated reasoning). Such features of speech utterance can be observed in psychosis and hydrocephalus.
Perseverations and stereotypies are disorders of mental activity that are characterized by repetition of the answer to the first question asked. In this case, there is a long-term dominance of any one thought, one idea, which is based on stuck associations. In speech, patients answer the first question asked.
Incoherent, disjointed thinking is characteristic of a number of infectious diseases that occur with high fever, as well as in patients with schizophrenia. At the same time, thoughts are not united with each other, but represent separate fragments in which there is no analysis and synthesis, there is no ability to generalize, and speech is meaningless.
Autistic thinking _
characterized by the subject’s isolation from the outside world, his isolation, immersion in his own experiences that do not adequately correspond to reality.
Thinking disorders include obsessive thoughts (obsessive syndrome) . These are thoughts from which the patient cannot free himself, although he understands their uselessness. Obsessive thoughts can occur in practically healthy people, neurotics and mentally ill people.
In mentally healthy people, obsessive thoughts cause a critical attitude towards them.
Obsessive thoughts in neurotics
are more complex and persistent. The patient is critical of his condition, but cannot free himself from his experiences. Obsessive thoughts in neurotics can be of a different nature and manifest themselves in the form of irresistible desires (counting steps on the stairs, windows, lanterns, etc.), drives and fears.
Obsessive fears
or
phobias
, are varied and difficult to overcome.
A thought may arise, and with it fear, before performing some task or action, especially in an environment of excitement, tension, for example: logophobia
(fear of speech).
Overvalued ideas are observed in adolescence and are characterized by certain features. These thoughts are not absurd, but the patient attaches such great importance to them that they objectively do not have. The entire structure of thoughts and feelings is subordinated to one idea, consonant with it (love - hate).
Delusions and delusions arise as a result of brain disease. Delirium can occur against a background of upset consciousness during infection or intoxication, at the height of a painful state (high temperature or alcohol poisoning), when patients utter individual words or short phrases that are not related to the environment.
Delusional ideas are incorrect, untrue judgments and conclusions that cannot be dissuaded. Patients are influenced by thoughts and ideas that arise in them that change their behavior. Delusional ideas are systematized, pronounced against the background of preserved consciousness, accompany a mental disorder, can be observed for a long time, and can be combined with hallucinations. Delusional ideas vary in content: ideas of relationship, persecution, poisoning, jealousy, greatness and enrichment, invention, reform, litigiousness and others.
Hypochondriacal delirium
characterized by unfounded beliefs and statements by the patient that he has an incurable disease and must die soon.
Along with the primary delirium
it is possible to identify
sensory
(
figurative) delirium,
which is characterized by a disorder of sensory cognition, develops against the background of other mental disorders, is visual in nature with many images, perceived fragmentarily, developing into images, guesses, fantasies, which explains its incoherence and absurdity.
There are various forms of sensory delirium: self-accusation
,
influence
,
persecution
,
self-abasement, damage, nihilistic, expansive, fantastic, religious, erotic, jealousy, cosmic influence
, etc.
Unsystematic delusions called paranoid
, is incoherent, based on guesswork and assumptions.
Features of thinking disorders in childhood
Considering obsessive thoughts and delusions as forms of thinking disorders, it is necessary to emphasize that in childhood obsessive fears, thoughts and actions are observed quite often and are associated with neurotic reactions due to age, limited experience, increased suggestibility and external conditions. Delusional ideas, as a rule, are not observed in childhood. They appear selectively at primary school age and characterize a certain mental disorder.
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Thought disorders (continued)
THINKING DISORDERS are expressed in a disruption of the thinking process and in the pathological production of thinking.
DISORDERS OF THE THINKING PROCESS. Accelerated thinking
characterized by rapid, facilitated emergence and change of thoughts, “acceleration of the flow of ideas,” a rapid change in the focus of the thought process due to weakened attention, superficial judgments, reduced mental productivity, and chaotic speech agitation. The external connection of ideas is not seriously disturbed, however, with a particularly strong acceleration of thinking (“jump of ideas”), their sequence can be upset, they become superficial, unfinished, resulting in manic confusion. This type of thought disorder is observed during manic phases of affective psychosis.
Inhibited thinking -
slowing down the pace of thoughts, poverty of ideas, concepts and judgments, low mobility of purposeful thinking, disorder of comprehension, slow selection of associations according to the task, long-term stuck on the same idea. Seen in depression.
Intermittency, delayed thoughts (sperrung)
is expressed in sudden failures, stops in the train of thought. “Lost thoughts” can last from a few seconds to several days. Characteristic of schizophrenia.
Thickening (agglutination) -
the condensation of ideas and concepts is expressed in the merging of unrelated concepts or words into one concept or word. A patient with schizophrenia, meaning that after shock everything goes well, says “chocolate.”
Symbolism of thinking
- substitution, substitution of some concepts for others, coexistence of the direct and figurative meaning of concepts. For example: “Grief is an arrow pointing backward,” “A is a letter in the knowledge of the material world.” Symbolism also appears in neologisms - word creation, where concepts and words are merged or concepts are symbolically replaced: “bottom”, “andophyte”, “klauks”.
Flood of thoughts (mentism)
- involuntary, violent emergence in the mind of rapidly successive ideas, an unfocused flow of thoughts, memories, often incoherent and poorly remembered. These may be short-term episodes or surges that last indefinitely. Patients, usually suffering from schizophrenia, perceive this as an external influence on the psyche.
Thoroughness of thinking -
slow, with difficulty moving from one thought to another, overly detailed, viscous thinking with marking time, citing a lot of unimportant details, the inability to briefly formulate one’s ideas, the inability to switch to something new. It occurs in epilepsy, and may also occur in patients with severe mental retardation.
Perseveration of thinking
- stagnation, monotony of thinking, constant return of the same thoughts, getting stuck on some idea, repeating the same words, the same answers to various questions. It happens with epilepsy and organic psychoses.
Incoherent or confused thinking
manifests itself in the fact that the grammatical form of phrases is destroyed, intermediate links between fragments of thoughts fall out, and speech production becomes incoherent. A typical form of incoherent thinking occurs against the background of amentive clouding of consciousness, when elementary analysis and synthesis are disrupted, and therefore the ability to comprehend the environment is completely lost, confusion and repeated perplexed questions appear. Sometimes, with asthenic confusion, patients are able to grasp part of the situation, at times they are better oriented in their surroundings, and answer questions; in these cases, thinking becomes more orderly. Occurs in toxic-infectious, somatogenic psychoses and in the twilight state in patients with epilepsy.
Stereotypes -
repetition of the same, often meaningless words and expressions, due to the disinhibition of verbal automatisms. It is observed in schizophrenia.
Reasoning
characterized by a tendency to empty, sterile reasoning based on superficial, formal analogies. This is philosophizing, verbosity and banality of judgments that are inadequate to the real situation. Reasoning is not specific because it is not related to past experience and is not based on real ideas. Instead of the goal of thinking, which should lead to knowledge of reality, “reasoning” is in the foreground. Occurs in schizophrenia, epilepsy, mental retardation.
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Content. Isaev D.N. Psychopathology of childhood
