Review of scientific research into the phenomenon of altruism based on iissiidiological concepts

Effective altruism

is a philosophy and social movement that uses facts and evidence to determine the most effective ways to make the world a better place. Effective altruists strive to take into account all possible reasons and possibilities and choose those solutions that will have the greatest positive impact[1]. This broad, scientific approach distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or charity. Although a significant portion of effective altruists focus on charitable giving, the philosophy of effective altruism has much broader applications, such as prioritizing scientific projects, campaigns, and policy initiatives that are expected to have the greatest number of lives saved and improved[2]. This movement includes such famous people as philosopher Peter Singer[3], Facebook co-founder Dustin Moskowitz[4], Oxford philosopher William MacAskill[5] and researcher Toby Ord[6]. The movement consists of many units[7] and organizations[8] around the world.

What is altruism

Altruism is the activity of unselfishly caring for the well-being of others, as well as the feeling that involves such activity. Altruism is often associated with the related concept of selflessness, which means giving up one's own personal benefits for the benefit of others.

Psychologists often view altruism as part of so-called prosocial behavior, that is, one that is aimed at helping other people. It is also usually understood as the opposite of selfishness.

Views on altruism among scientists varied. The concept itself was introduced by O. Comte, a French philosopher who founded sociology as a separate science. He believed that altruism implies a conscious renunciation of one's own benefits for the sake of serving others: one's own contribution to social well-being is greater than the activity of society in providing one's personal benefits.

However, other researchers understand this phenomenon differently. In their opinion, altruism is also a desire for personal gain, only a desire of a special kind: personal benefit is carried out in the long term, but it is much larger and more extensive than ordinary egoism. This can be compared to entrepreneurship: a large and complex enterprise requires significant costs now and will bring profit only in the future, but this profit will be huge; on the contrary, a small organization allows you to get “easy money” right away, but this amount will always be small.

This approach seems quite reasonable. Altruism, for example, may not bring material benefits, but it can help raise one’s reputation and serve as a means of self-promotion. An example is the well-known Eastern custom of gift-giving: a person gives something as a gift to his friend (or some influential person) just like that, without implying a reciprocal favor at the moment; however, this is always done if a person needs this person in the long term - for example, if you run out of money, then an acquaintance whom you once gifted will definitely lend it to you.

There is another consideration. Man by nature is a social creature. Even basic human survival is almost impossible without his involvement in social relations. And even if a person finds a way to survive alone (for example, buy land on the outskirts, cultivate the land and eat from his garden), then most often this implies the impossibility of human development to a higher level. Social life in a sense has become an impulse for man, something like an instinct. Most people are afraid of being thrown out of society, so he is forced, whether he wants to or not, to exhibit altruistic behavior.

Thus, it turns out that altruism and egoism have a more complex relationship with each other than is usually understood. These are not always opposites, they are quite closely related to each other.

Philosophy

Effective altruism stems from a person's personal commitment to making change in the world, being driven enough to stay involved over time, and focusing on the most effective ways to make change. The labor or resources that the individual devotes are then directed toward those activities that lead to the desired changes. Effective altruism differs from other types of philanthropy in that it ultimately seeks to maximize social benefit. Mandatory giving such as Zakat, reciprocal giving, life-impacting giving and celebrity endorsed giving may not have much impact as the focus of such giving is not consciously focused on social impact. Effective altruism focuses on the results of each donation, as well as other methods of achieving positive impact, such as careers and volunteer work.

Prioritizing goals

Despite the growing focus of charities on improving efficiency and delivering visible results, they usually focus on one specific goal, such as education or climate change[9]. Effective altruism seeks to compare the relative influence of different goals.

Effective altruists try to select the highest priority goals based on which activities in each area can produce the most significant overall outcome, such as improving human or animal welfare. They then focus their attention on work in high priority areas. Some organizations conduct research on goal prioritization[10][11].

Some priorities of effective altruists include: poverty in developing countries, animal suffering in meat processing plants, and the long-term prospects for human development.

Return on investment

Whenever possible, effective altruists try to select those charities that generate the greatest amount of benefit per unit of money spent. For example, they select health care organizations based on the number of lives saved per unit of currency, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained per unit of currency, or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted per unit of currency. DALY is a key metric used by the UN World Health Organization in publications such as the Global Burden of Disease[12][13]. This metric of disease burden is expressed as the number of years of life lost due to disease, disability, or early death.

The primary method for measuring impact is the randomized controlled trial (RCT). RCT is considered a reliable form of scientific evidence in health care because RCT reduces the influence of spurious causes and biases. Some health activities, such as vaccinations, are already supported by high-quality medical research, making proof of effectiveness easier for charities targeting such activities[14]. Other research groups are conducting RCTs for other activities, such as the Poverty Action Lab[15] and Innovations for Poverty Action[16].

Effective giving is an important component of effective altruism because some types of charity are much more effective than others[17]. Some charities simply do not achieve their intended results. For other charities that are achieving success, GiveWell cites statistics that some achieve much greater success with less monetary investment[18]. Improving quality of life and health in high-impact projects can be up to 100 times more effective than in low-impact projects[19].

Reducing the priority of organizational expenses

Traditional evaluation of charities has often been based on a preference for organizations with minimal organizational costs and a high percentage of funds spent directly on projects. However, organizations of effective altruists reject this standard as simplistic and flawed[20][21]. Dan Pallotta[22] makes the argument that charities should spend more on organizing fundraising if it later increases the fund that will go directly to charitable causes. Additionally, Dean Karlan's research "found that the most effective charities spend a larger share of their budget on administrative needs than their less efficient competitors"[23], presumably because administrative costs may involve reviewing the effectiveness of their activities. shares Thus, additional administrative costs result in resources being allocated to the most effective actions.

Limits of development

The charity evaluation organization GiveWell emphasizes the importance of assessing a charity's ability to expand if its funds increase.[24] In general, effective altruists adhere to the point of view that the choice of goals for support should be aimed primarily at those organizations that can use these funds for development rather than those that have already reached the limits of development.

Impartiality

Effective altruists reject the view that some lives are inherently more valuable than others. For example, they believe that a person in a developing country has the same value of life as a person in their own society. As Peter Singer notes:

Comparative Wealth

Many effective altruists believe that, as Peter Singer puts it, “if we have the power to prevent something bad from happening without sacrificing something of comparable moral value, we are morally obligated to do so.”[25] Anyone whose income at purchasing power parity is more than $52,000 per year is richer than 99% of the world's population[27]. For this reason, many effective altruists donate a significant portion of their income to high-impact charities, since it does not force them to give up important acquisitions.

Counterfactual Justifications

Effective altruists argue that counterfactual justifications are important for determining the type of activity in which a person's actions will produce the greatest benefit. Many people assume that the best way to help people is through direct methods, such as volunteering for charities or providing social services[28][29]. But since charities and social benefit organizations can usually find people willing to work for them, effective altruists compare the possible benefits of someone's work with the possible benefits of the next potential candidate for the position. Following this logic, the impact of choosing a traditional altruistic career may be less than it seems[30].

The income strategy for donations has been proposed as a possible strategy for effective altruists. This strategy involves choosing a high-paying job with the explicit goal of donating large sums of money to charity. Benjamin Todd and William MacAskill make the argument that the impact of possible unethical actions by an individual in high-income areas will be small, since someone else will do them anyway, while the impact of donations will be large.[31][32] .

Example

The cost of a guide dog for a blind person is $42,000[33]. Alternatively, surgery to treat trichiasis (the final stage of trachoma that causes blindness) costs less than $40 in developing countries[34]. This operation successfully restores vision in 80% of cases. Thus, vision can be restored for 840 people for the cost of one guide dog, while a guide dog is not a full-fledged vision restoration[35].

Types of altruism in psychology

Altruism is a fairly broad phenomenon.

It is customary to distinguish several types of such behavior:

Moral and normative altruism . The moral variety is based on the moral attitudes of the individual, his conscience, and spiritual needs. A person helps others out of personal convictions about the common good and the need to serve it; Working for the common good, he receives satisfaction and a feeling of harmony with the world around him. Normative altruism is a type of moral altruism; in this case, a person strives for justice, defends the truth.
Parental altruism . It implies a selfless attitude of parents towards the child. After all, parents often treat their children as personal property and raise them, striving to realize their own ambitions. An altruistic attitude, on the contrary, implies respect for the child’s personality, his freedom and welfare; his parents give up their own ambitions for him. At the same time, they never reproach their children for not respecting their parents, although they spent the best years of their lives raising them.
Social altruism . In this case, a person provides selfless help to people who are part of his immediate environment: relatives, acquaintances, friends, colleagues, etc. We can say that such behavior ensures a more comfortable existence in the group, and is also a kind of social elevator. However, here it is necessary to distinguish real altruism from strategic actions, when helping loved ones is carried out for the purpose of subsequent manipulation.
Demonstrative altruism . It is based on the idea of certain “rules of decency.” In this case, “good deeds” are performed in order to conform to social norms. There are certain egoistic features in this: a person wants to show that he is a full member of society and has the right to enjoy all public benefits.
Compassionate altruism . It is based on the feeling of empathy. A person puts himself in the place of another, feels his problem and helps solve it. At the same time, a person always achieves a certain result. Compassionate altruistic behavior is characteristic of the closest connection between people, which manifests itself at the deepest level.
Rational altruism . In this case, a person does good for another, without allowing damage to his own good. This behavior involves reason: a person carefully considers the consequences of his actions. Rational altruism strikes a reasonable balance between personal needs and the needs of others. In such behavior, a share of healthy egoism is noticeable: a person does not allow the environment to exploit him and sit on his neck. Indeed, examples of such exploitation occur quite often: many people think that each individual person “owes” something to others - to society, loved ones, the state. But in this case we cannot talk about altruism: truly good deeds cannot be done by order or forcedly. Altruistic behavior is always a free expression of human will.

Review of the phenomenon of altruism in issiidiology and science

Nowadays, the topic of altruistic interaction between people is beginning to attract more and more attention. There are many reasons for this. On the one hand, there is a global increase in aggressiveness, both personal, caused by the continuous stress in which most people have been living lately, and intergroup. On the other hand, this is the overpopulation of the globe, forcing us to look for alternative ways of interaction between people, nations and countries. On the third hand, this is the massive spread of chronic alcoholism, drug addiction and depression as various methods of suicidal behavior among a number of ethnic groups and entire nations. To the above, we add that the growth of egoistic tendencies, which is becoming more and more obvious in our time, is also of significant interest. Modern morality, conditioned by the agony of a culture of overconsumption, has placed selfishness at the forefront. Egocentrism has become the norm, it evokes sympathy, people strive for it, it is a goal and a means of achieving other goals. This opinion is currently expressed by psychoanalysts. [8]

Classical concepts of altruism consider it either as a biological phenomenon of instinctive nature and inherited (ethological approach), or as a cultural and social phenomenon rooted in a broader plane of moral behavior (philosophical, religious and part of social theories of the origin of altruism), or as a psychological phenomenon associated with the orientation of the individual, attitudes, the characteristics of experienced emotions and the specifics of the relationships of mental authorities with each other (psychological and psychoanalytic views on altruism). Modern psychologists are convinced that altruism is a biosociopsychological phenomenon that requires an interdisciplinary approach to study it. [8]

Thinking about the meaning of this word “Altruism”, I decided to ask what scientists think about it: historians, psychologists, sociologists, teachers, economists. In analyzing various modern studies, I want to touch upon the issue of collective labor as a form of manifestation of altruism, and directly the very concepts of altruism and egoism in society and their relationship in it.

Now, studying Iissiidiology and realizing the need to follow the lluuvumic (human) direction of development, where there are completely no signs of personal egoism, and there is only a vital creative need for Service, I understand that one of the forms of manifestation of Service is Altruism. To follow the lluuvvum direction of development means to synthesize (combine, combine, unite) such human qualities as Altruism and Intelligence in one’s life creativity.

The process of evolution and harmonious development of both an individual and human civilization as a whole consists of an absolute reorientation of the thinking of individuals towards lluuvum positivism, which is achieved through the constant cultivation in the Self-Consciousness of people of the principles of human development - highly intellectual Altruism and highly sensitive Intelligence. The life priorities of an Altruistic and Intellectually developed person consist of unconditional Service to others and the cultivation in oneself of such states as responsibility, honesty, openness, spiritual initiative, optimism, mercy, sincerity, sacrifice, aspiration, perseverance, integrity, etc.

How consonant are the concept of highly intellectual Altruism in Iissiidiology and the concept of unconditional, spiritual altruism among scientists? Let's consider both points of view. According to Iissiidiological concepts, highly intellectual Altruism is the Highest Love (ALL-Acceptance, ALL-Forgiveness, ALL-Sacrifice) combined with the Highest Knowledge (Understanding of the Universal Laws of the Universe with the implementation dynamics of each of their Principles - definition from volume 15 of Iissiidiology). [1] In this understanding, it is necessary to consider your Life from the position of acquiring even greater opportunities in order to benefit both the entire Universe and the people around you, without expecting from them either gratitude or the realization of other personal interests. One must experience within oneself the urgent need to altruistically bring the Light of heissiidiological Knowledge to all people and give it in Synthesis with the Highest Love in the name of the common good and the speedy prosperity of the entire civilization. [1]

Now let's turn to the opinion of scientists.
Altruism is the willingness to selflessly act for the benefit of others, regardless of one’s own interests (Ozhegov S.I. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language.).
The term was introduced by the French philosopher Auguste Comte as an antonym to the concept of “egoism.” The founder of positivism, philosopher Auguste Comte, believed that under the influence of altruistic tendencies, society as an integral social organism would develop in the direction of increasing humanization of values. Altruism is a selfless concern for the welfare of other people. This is life for others and for the sake of others. This understanding of altruism also corresponds to the primary meaning of the word . The French word altruisme comes from the Latin root alteri, “other.” Indo-European origins al- beyond, on the other side. English alter – change, make different.

The origin of altruism is not entirely clear, since at first glance this personality trait contradicts the basic biological law - the instinct of self-preservation. It turns out that if this phenomenon had brought exceptional harm, it would have disappeared over time in the process of evolution. However, people who strive to do good to others to their own detriment exist and have always existed at all times among all nations. In this regard, some scientists believe that the “altruism gene” is harmful to the individual, but beneficial to society as a whole, and is therefore preserved by natural selection. To this must be added the influence of upbringing on the cultivation of altruism.

There is no single definition of the concept of “altruism”. An analysis of the literature presents altruism as a special moral quality of an individual, and as a form of human behavior, and as a group of emotions that encourages actions that benefit others, and as the basis of all living things.

Historical eras amaze with the diversity of points of view and contradictory opinions about the role of selfishness and altruism in human life and society. Both in the past and in the present, some philosophers consider egoism to be the main creative property of man (Machiavelli, Spinoza, Hobbes, Mandeville, Kant, Bentham, Schopenhauer, Stirner, Nietzsche, Rand, etc.), others - altruism (Shaftes-Bury, Hutcheson , Hume, Smith, Comte, Kropotkin, Soloviev, Soviet philosophers), others recognize both in a certain ratio (Rousseau, Mill, Spencer, Sorokin, Russell, Rolls, etc.).

Modern natural science (sociobiology, psychogenetics, ethology) confirms the traditional opinion that people are divided into egoists and altruists and that egoists form the overwhelming majority. According to population studies, there is a certain numerical ratio of altruists and several types of egoists (extremely hard, hard, moderate and soft), close to the ratio known in genetics (1: 4: 6: 4: 1), which is characteristic of a combinative inheritance system of two pairs unidirectional genes. This means that, most likely, human society is hereditarily heterotypic (the quantitative manifestation of a trait between its values in parents), with hereditary altruists in it no more than 6%, soft egoists amenable to altruistic education, approximately 25%, moderate (partly amenable - partly not amenable) - about 40%, unresponsive to moral standards, rigid egoists - 25%, and pure genetic egoists, like altruists, make up no more than 6%. [2, 7]

And here is what philosophers and historians think about the relationship between altruists and egoists. Onward historical movement cannot be accidental. In addition to the change of civilizational eras and economic formations (slavery, feudalism, capitalism and communism, or socialism, post-socialism and post-capitalism), it also includes smaller phases of natural cyclicity: beginning, youth, heyday, maturity, aging and destruction of the social system.

In different periods, in accordance with historical necessity, individuals with different genetic inclinations may come to the fore. The revolutionary beginning, as a rule, is laid by the heroic efforts of a few altruists who are able to sacrifice themselves for the sake of a higher idea. During the youth of the system, the benefits of new relationships are established with the participation of the most advanced, most educated and socially in demand (soft) egoists. A system begins to flourish and mature when the overwhelming majority unites around its values, that is, when moderate egoists add their decisive opinions to the ideas of altruists and soft egoists. These are the creative phases of the development of society. Tough and extremely rigid egoists are most prone to disturbing public order, and their usual fate is crime, which society, in the creative period of its history, somehow copes with. But in an era of aging social system, especially when it takes the path of war, tough egoists can take on the first role as aggressors and conquerors, supporters of power politics and terror. In the era of the aging system, the majority, represented by moderate egoists, experiences confusion and turns from the main creative force into a destructive force. [7]

Next comes the moment of destruction of the system, when the heterogeneity of people, especially egoists, gives a centrifugal character to all social processes. This is exactly how the fall of the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Rome, Byzantium, Kievan Rus took place, and the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1799, the October Revolution and the Civil War in Russia, fascism in Germany, and perestroika in the USSR also developed in the same way. But any destructive egoistic stage of history is replaced by a creative stage of altruism.

Experiments in social psychology also confirm a similar ratio of altruists and egoists. S. Milgram's experiments with student volunteers demonstrated that the structure of human societies along the axis “altruism - conformism - egoism” is in a percentage ratio of 1:3:1. Moreover, as it turned out through repeated repetitions of this experiment, this ratio is stable for different societies, generations and cultures. The constant percentage of people prone to altruistic behavior indicates that it has an important adaptive meaning and is inherited from generation to generation. [2] This is how geneticists confirmed it.

In 2009, Israeli geneticists were able to discover a connection between certain allelic variants of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and the tendency of people to exhibit selfless altruism. The oxytocin receptor is a protein produced by some brain cells and is responsible for their sensitivity to oxytocin. Similar properties were also found in the vasopressin receptor gene (AVPR1a). The regulatory regions of these genes contain so-called single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). These are nucleotides that can be different in different people (most of each gene, of course, is the same in all people). It turned out that some of the alleles of these genes provide a lower, and others a greater, propensity for altruism. Groups of people were tested for altruistic actions, the results of which were then compared with the results of genetic analysis. The frequency of the T allele, which correlates with greed, among the experiment participants was 29%; the frequency of the “generous” allele G is, respectively, 71%. [2]

All this suggests that altruism in people, even today, can still develop under the influence of biological mechanisms, and not just socio-cultural factors.

Until now, we knew very little about how altruism develops during children's development. Recently, this gap has begun to be filled thanks to special experimental studies by psychologists.

It turned out that most three- and four-year-old children behave like absolute egoists. When making decisions, a small child pays attention only to his own benefit; The fate of other children is completely indifferent to him. At the age of 5–6 years the situation begins to change, and at 7–8 years the readiness to help others (for example, share candy) is already clearly expressed. However, as special tests have shown, this behavior is not based on a disinterested desire to help, but on the desire for equality and justice: children tend to reject dishonest, unequal options for dividing candy, both in their own and in others’ favor.

Among children, there are about 5% of good-natured people, selfless altruists who always take care of others, and the proportion of such children does not change with age. There are “bad guys” who try to take everything from others and give nothing to anyone. Their number decreases with age. And there are “lovers of justice” who try to divide everything equally, and the proportion of such children grows rapidly with age. [2]

These results are thought-provoking. What role do the 5% of good people play in our society? Are they not the ones who give us moral guidelines? And if so, why are there only 5% of them? Perhaps because the excessive proliferation of selfless altruists creates too favorable an environment for egoists who will parasitize on the kindness of others. From these positions, the key role of “lovers of justice” becomes clear: they restrain the development of parasitism.

And from other positions, the huge role of upbringing and socio-cultural factors in the development of children is visible. The issue of educating the younger generation in the spirit of collectivism is a leading one in pedagogy. Education in the team and through the team is the central idea of A.S.’s pedagogical system. Makarenko, which remains relevant to this day.

Labor actions (subbotniks) are used in pedagogy as labor education and altruism education. The meaning of the subbotnik is voluntary joint work in free time, aimed at improving the surrounding reality. The educational potential of a labor action involves solving such pedagogical problems as developing in schoolchildren the experience of joint altruistic work, overcoming difficulties, responsibility for the assigned work, and independence in solving subject-specific and practical problems. It has long been known that during work activity, the frontal cortex, enriched with connections, works intensively, the main zone of rationality. [6]

Makarenko believed that hard work and the ability to work are not given to a child by nature, but are brought up in him. Work should be creative, joyful, conscious, and also the main form of manifestation of personality and the capabilities inherent in it. The work performed by students has social significance and is of a collective nature. In collective forms of labor education, children emotionally generalize positive experiences, and the experience of moral feelings is formed. The corrective role of labor education is also great: attention, memory, will, speech, and thinking are corrected. “Participation in collective work,” said A. S. Makarenko, “allows a person to develop the correct moral attitude towards other people - kindred love and friendship towards every worker...” [5]

An analysis of a number of literary sources allows us to assert that all kinds of grouping processes can be attributed to the prototype of altruism. For example, Lorenz says that “grouping tendencies are phylogenetically the earliest manifestations of the strength of the altruistic drive.” This can also be stated because in a group any of its members have to restrain a number of their own egoistic tendencies to the detriment of group interests. [13]

The group always dominates the individual. And life in a group is the predominance of altruistic processes, when they systematically interrupt aggressive drives. For example, A.V. Petrovsky considered altruism from the point of view of collectivism - a group norm that regulates the behavior of people in a group and is expressed in such components as a positive attitude towards the goals of the group, respect for the equal distribution of “goods” in it, greater openness in communication, willingness to put the group’s goals above one’s own, etc. Being in a group and accepting its rules is already a certain degree of altruism. [16]

During education, Makarenko believed, “there must be a serious system of demands on a person, and only this can lead to the fact that we will develop, first of all, demands on ourselves. This is the most difficult thing - the demand on yourself." [5] But this is precisely where the process of improvement and self-improvement of a person begins, the restructuring of oneself. These words, spoken in the 30s of the last century, perfectly correlate with heissiidiological ideas about the importance of every minute work on oneself in the self-development of the individual (BDK, volume 15, section XIX). [1]

Confirmation of the need for just such work on oneself to cultivate true altruism is also found among modern psychologists. “In order for a subject to become capable of acts of transfinite altruism, he must form a readiness for genuine altruistic behavior, moreover, he must be in permanent spiritual growth. Only then will he be able to carry out the function of self-transcendence and psychic integration with the world.” [8]

Readiness for genuine altruistic behavior must be formed in a child from childhood, and in adulthood, it must be self-educated. It is also necessary to increase one’s own awareness, sensitivity to various manifestations of the Id, and develop the ability to withstand the pressure of the Superego. In this case, the subject’s ego becomes more mature and permeable to the impulses of the unconscious and the directives of the normative authority. Such a process of spiritual growth will ensure readiness for the formation of mature altruism, without any neurotic manifestations and without extreme degrees of coercion.” [8]

A short explanation of psychological terms:

Ego, Super-Ego, Id are concepts used in psychoanalytic literature to designate parts or instances of the psyche, personality structure (the model of which was proposed by Freud in 1923).
Ego - I, you can use the term Self instead of the term I. The ego serves as a mediator between the individual and external reality, its important task is to achieve optimal satisfaction of instinctive aspirations while maintaining “good relations” with the outside world.
In a metaphorical sense, the Superego acts as the conscience, inner voice or judge.
In a broad sense, the word "Id" includes all desires generated by the perception and memories of the satisfaction of basic physiological needs.
The ego (our Self), trying to follow the reality principle, finds itself between a rock and a hard place, torn apart by the contradictions between the demands of the Super-Ego (which appears to us as conscience) and the Id (guided solely by the pleasure principle).

Modern psychologists have come to the conclusion that personal altruism is a systemic phenomenon consisting of three levels:

unconscious (natural)
conscious (personal)
spiritual (transfinite)

Only the last level can be considered as the highest degree of an individual’s altruistic attitude towards the world. [8]

The first, lowest level of the psychological model includes natural altruism, composed of kinship/parental (by helping relatives, you contribute to the spread of your own genes), reciprocal ( direct - the principle of “you give me - I’ll give you” and indirect reciprocity - altruistic actions as a means of increasing one’s own reputation and social status ) , rank/coalition, gender and coercive (hierarchy, constant “self-sacrifice” of the lower classes in favor of the upper classes) types. A distinctive feature of this level is that all of the listed types have a significant coercive nature and contain an aggressive component associated with control and dominance over the object of the altruistic act. This level of altruism is inherited, is instinctive in nature and has low awareness.

The second, middle level of the altruism model - personal - constitutes a genuine/moral type of altruistic behavior. This level is based on the lower level and is largely a product of its cultural and social transformations, through which altruism receives new forms of embodiment. That is, all types related to natural altruism can be personal. At the same time, they are accomplished using cultural ways of realizing them and occur more consciously. This level is also not free from an aggressive component, which can be hidden in the unconscious interaction of intrapsychic authorities (Id, Ego and Superego), in the dynamic correlation of which the altruistic motivation of the individual is born. This type of altruism is acquired in the process of education and socialization; then becomes a consequence of personal growth. Genuine altruistic behavior is carried out from an excess of internal forces; it is associated with receiving moral pleasure from the act of altruism. If genuine altruistic behavior has a pro-social orientation, then it can be characterized as moral. True altruism does not require obligatory reciprocal behavior. Personal altruism is much more conscious, but still contains unconscious components.

Finally, the third, highest level of the model of altruistic behavior is crowned by transfinite altruism. It reflects the maximum degree of development of this phenomenon, can only be formed in a spiritually mature person, and acts as the highest level of an individual’s altruistic attitude towards the world. The last type of altruism is free from any manifestations of aggression, dominance and control and consists of a truly spiritual self-transcendence (going beyond one’s limits) of oneself into the world, in which the subject experiences himself and the world as parts of a single whole. Transfinite altruism is exclusively conscious and always meaningful. (Transcensus is penetration into the beyond, going beyond the realities of our world). Transfinite altruism is based on the freedom of internal choice and the responsibility associated with it; and it itself consists of selflessly giving love and goodness to the world. This type of altruism is acquired in the process of self-education and spiritual growth and does not require mandatory reciprocal behavior. [8]

Classical evolutionary models consider a number of mechanisms that ensure the spread of “altruism genes” in a population, that is, genes that incline their carriers to behavior that is harmful to themselves, but beneficial to other individuals. Interesting research on the prosperity of altruists in microbial populations was carried out by American microbiologists, who created an interesting living model from two strains of genetically modified E. coli. [3]

Could there be situations in nature where none of the mechanisms listed in the first model works, and altruists neither directly nor indirectly receive any benefit from their altruism, but altruism nevertheless develops and flourishes? Theoretically, this is quite possible, as such outstanding evolutionary theorists as John Haldane and William Hamilton once spoke about. It is quite difficult to test these theoretical constructs in practice, because in each specific case, when we observe the spread of “altruism genes” in natural populations, it is very difficult to prove that neither kin selection, nor reciprocity, nor any other unknowns are involved here we benefit from altruism in a given species of living organisms. For the purity of the experiment, scientists took this into account . Since both strains were artificially created by the scientists themselves and had no evolutionary history, the experimenters knew for sure that there were no “secret tricks” in the relationship between altruists and egoists in their model, and altruists did not receive any additional benefits from their altruism.

American microbiologists have created a model system from living bacteria in which altruistic microbes, which produce a substance useful to the entire population at the expense of themselves, ultimately win despite the fact that in each individual population they lose the competition to selfish microbes. Altruists thrive thanks to a statistical effect known as Simpson's Paradox. Thus, natural selection, acting in parallel at two levels - individual and population, subject to certain conditions, can ensure the development of altruism even when in each individual population it favors egoists, and dooms altruists to gradual extinction. [3]

Economists also did not remain aloof from studying the phenomenon of altruism. The results of research by Swiss economists provided anthropologists with an additional argument in favor of the fact that human nature is inherent not only in the desire for material interests, but also in the desire for justice and cooperation with other people. In many cases, people strive, at their own expense, to reward those who act in concert with them, and vice versa - to punish “dissidents.” [4]

Does a person's gender influence the manifestation of altruism? Researchers from Odessa National University. I.I. Mechnikov, when considering the phenomenon of altruism, touched upon the gender aspect of the analysis of altruism. Studies have shown that there are 16 times fewer altruists in the human population than egoists, and there are significant differences in the manifestation of altruism between men and women; among women there are 3 times more of them than among men. Women, to a greater extent than men, are prone in interpersonal relationships to display responsiveness, unselfishness, concern for others, generosity, forgiveness, sympathy, generosity, tolerance, forbearance, as well as caring for others to the detriment of themselves. [10]

In addition, Japanese psychologists have found that people's altruistic behavior strongly depends on the degree of anonymity of the situation: any hint that someone is watching a person increases the likelihood of altruistic actions. Experiments conducted by Japanese psychologists showed that this effect is often associated not with the fear of punishment, but with the hope of a “reward,” that is, an improvement in one’s reputation [9].

The benefit of altruistic choices can be traced even in the concept of game theory, as a branch of mathematics, the subject of which is the analysis of making optimal decisions in conditions of conflict; game theory also includes altruistic and selfish strategies.

In The Evolution of Cooperation, Robert Axelrod explored an extension of the Prisoner's Dilemma scenario (Game Theory), which he called the repeated prisoner's dilemma (RPD). Axelrod invited academic colleagues from around the world to develop computer strategies to compete in the PDZ championship. The programs included in it varied in algorithmic complexity, initial hostility, ability to forgive, altruism, and so on. Axelrod discovered that if a game was repeated over a long period of time among many players, each time with different strategies, "greedy" strategies performed poorly in the long run, while more "altruistic" strategies performed better in terms of self-interest. He used this competition to show a possible mechanism for the evolution of altruistic behavior.

The theory of natural selection confirms altruism as a mechanism for the survival of the species as a whole, that is, caring for one’s own kind even to the detriment of oneself. There are many examples of this among living organisms - parents caring for their offspring and the offspring of their species, even at the cost of their own lives. Altruism is also observed between species: a hippopotamus saving an antelope from a crocodile at a watering hole, dolphins helping drowning people, and recently I read about how a stray dog protected a little girl from a pedophile, etc.

Many experiments of modern scientists deal only with the first level of the psychological model of altruism. According to modern psychologists, the types of altruism included in the first level of the altruism model represent only the lowest stage in the development of spiritual or transfinite altruism. This opinion is very consonant with the concepts of issiidiology: “...Any “human personality” with a multi-level structure of “personal” Self-Consciousness consists of Energy and Information.” [1]

In the view of Iissiidiology, Self-consciousness is defined as the universal ability of any “human personality” to realize itself in both the lower and higher Forms of its creative expression. Self-conscious subtle-material structures form psycho-cosmic Centers of the Total Consciousness of a person (IISSIIDI centers). The IISSIIDI system in the form of specific wave dynamics of special vortex structures provides all the possibilities of powerful, creative relationships between thoughts, feelings and desires. Each IISSIIDI center has its own name and consists of 12 levels. The implementation of Forms of Self-Consciousness on the energies of 2 lower centers and the lower levels of the 2nd pair of subsequent centers can produce into the world only altruism of the first and, sometimes, second levels of the psychological model of altruism. These types of altruism do not always bring good, both to the altruist himself and to the Form of Self-Consciousness to which he is directed. This interesting and multifaceted topic will be covered in the next article.

The closest thing to the concept of highly intellectual Altruism in Iissiidiology is, by definition, transfinite altruism among psychologists; unfortunately, the definition does not take into account the need for the presence of high Intelligence (sufficiently deep knowledge) in the Self-Consciousness of the altruist, which is a necessary condition for the advancement of the Self-Consciousness of the individual along the human path of development.

“Transfinite altruism is the highest, spiritual type of altruistic behavior; it is truly humane... This type of altruism is not directly related to the cultural and value norms of a particular time, it has an enduring value, its guidelines are basic human norms, and it is characterized by the highest degree of love in each of its acts. Transfinite altruism is based on the freedom of internal choice and the responsibility associated with it; and it itself consists of selflessly giving love and goodness to the world. At the same time, the subject of altruistic behavior is an internally filled with happiness person who transcends himself into the world and becomes one with the world, merging with it in conscious contact. At the same time, the peculiarity of a personality capable of transfinite altruism also lies in the fact that its own Ego is to some extent dissolved, the psychological boundaries with the world are permeable, and the most intense parts of the personality are exteriorized into the world. Such a person is free from any manifestations of egoism, since the external world is at the same time herself, and she herself is the whole world...” [8]

Transfinite altruism is the creation of good in its purest form, when a person experiences unity with the world, takes responsibility for it, transfers energy and any resource available to it as to itself. The peculiarity of this type of altruistic behavior is also that it is free from any manifestations of aggression, dominance and control and consists of truly spiritual self-manifestation. [8]

The absence of highly sensitive Intelligence in Self-Consciousness, as well as highly intellectual Altruism, leads to various distortions in personality development, to the formation of various destructions in the body and, as a consequence, to diseases.

So, the “altruism gene” can be inherited at birth; altruism must be cultivated in a person from childhood and develop with age by constant work on oneself. By performing each altruistic act, you change, at least a little, your destiny for the better. After all, good attracts good. Moreover, it turned out (according to research by psychologists McFarland and Myers) that people who tend to provide help more often themselves begin to receive it significantly more often. [14,15] By giving, you gain!

Psychoanalyst M.V. Savchin says this: “A person is moral due to his abilities for sympathy, empathy, empathy... A person, in order to be truly happy, must see happiness around him.” [17] True altruism contributes to human development, making him spiritually richer and stronger.

I would like to end with the words from Ayfaar’s song “Illuminating with the Light of Love”:

Enlightening every day with Kindness, I live every moment in a hurry, To live, Without losing the Light of the Soul, For others, without sparing myself!..

Characteristics of an altruist

Do altruists have distinctive characteristics? Is it possible to single them out from the general population?

Such signs exist, and psychologists know how to identify a true altruist by his actions:

They should be free of charge. A person, performing his actions, does not require any benefit for himself or even gratitude.
They must be carried out responsibly. An altruist understands the consequences of his actions and is ready to take responsibility for them.
For an altruist, the needs of others always come first, pushing personal needs into the background.
The altruist is driven by sacrifice; this means that he is ready to spend his time, money, physical and moral strength for the sake of activities in the interests of other people.
An altruist feels satisfaction by giving up some of his personal benefits and acting in the interests of other people; he does not consider himself deprived and is even sure that he only gains from selflessly helping others.

People characterized by altruism have small personal needs in terms of material well-being, fame, and career. For them, helping others is an end in itself and the meaning of existence. They often do not know how to compare their condition with the condition of others: they do not notice, for example, that they wear unprestigious, unfashionable and cheap clothes, do not pay special attention to their living conditions, etc.

Egoism and altruism: main differences

As already mentioned, these concepts have a fairly close connection. Only extreme manifestations of these types of behavior can be different and even opposite to each other. But it happens that at first glance it is difficult to understand what motives a person is guided by in a particular case: altruistic or selfish.

But it is still possible to reveal a person’s true intentions. First of all, it should be remembered that the altruist’s worldview is directed “from himself,” and the egoist’s is directed “toward himself,” this is the main motive for actions.

Often an egoist shows “philanthropy” within the framework of some influential society, or before providing assistance he is interested in a person’s social status or material wealth. He may not show it outwardly, but certain patterns can be identified in his actions.

An egoist, when providing assistance, is not capable of sacrifice, even partial. He shows concern for another person only when he is sure that his interests will not be harmed at all, and this is at a minimum. If, for example, a person has a million dollars, then an ordinary altruist (let's say, a moral one) is ready to give all his money if necessary to help a person in need. A “rational” altruist is firmly ready to give half or a little more of this amount, leaving a little for himself to “stay afloat.” But an egoist can hardly force himself to allocate a hundred or two dollars, often only after making sure that future profits will compensate for these expenses.

The actions of a person after assistance are provided are indicative. If altruism is real, then a person will quickly forget that he did something good for someone. But an egoist will remember his “good deed” for a long time, perhaps his whole life; by reminding others of this, he tries to blackmail them with this in order to manipulate them. Their demonstrative altruism quickly turns into the complete opposite - the desire to bring harm to a neighbor or use him for their own benefit. Thus, the egoist gradually reveals his cards and reveals his true essence.

Extreme manifestations of selfishness and altruism are usually perceived negatively by society. Extreme egoists are considered cynical, soulless, cruel and evil; and zealous altruists are considered unreasonable, naive, and “suckers.” Society treats extreme altruists with distrust; and there are certain considerations for this: a person who has completely abandoned his own interests may not be able to truly understand the interests of other people, to feel them. Such an altruist can really help another with all his heart, but at the same time he made a mistake in determining his problem: he will help where special help is not required, and will not notice the real problem of the other person. A sort of machine that churns out virtues according to a monotonous algorithm.

Activity

Career choice

The choice of career path greatly influences how much benefit a person will bring to the world - directly (by providing professional services) and indirectly (by spending money earned). There is an English-language website called 80,000 Hours that helps people with effective-altruistic goals with advice on choosing a career that will allow them to contribute the most to the world. 80000 Hours

believe that a profession should be chosen taking into account both the positive impact on the world right now (including money that can be donated), and the development of oneself as a specialist, acquiring connections, improving a resume, because this will give more opportunities later [36].

Monetary donations

First and foremost, effective altruism is about donating money in a way that will bring the most benefit. This involves two questions: where to donate money and how much to donate. Meta-charity GiveWell addresses the issue of where to donate

, publishing their research on the healthiest ways to donate. The Giving What We Can community makes members pledge to donate 10% of their income, and they also have a list of recommended charities.

Many effective altruists donate significantly more money than is socially acceptable. Some of them consider it a moral duty to alleviate the suffering of others through donations, unless these donations will bring a comparable level of suffering to themselves.[37] On the Giving What We Can website, by entering your family's income, country and number of family members, you can calculate what percent of the world's population is richer than you. Since living in more or less developed countries, you can earn, even after adjusting for the standard of living, many times more than in the poorest countries, some effective altruists try to live modestly so that they have the opportunity to donate more money. For example, Jeff Kaufman, Julia Weisz, Peter Singer donate half of their income[38][39]. On the Effective Altruism Hub[39], many people post how much they plan to give and how much they have already given to inspire others.

Is it possible to develop altruism in yourself?

There is one wise saying: not everyone has the power to do good, but everyone has the power not to do evil. However, this saying should not be understood too categorically. It is quite possible to develop altruism in yourself, if, of course, you really want it. It takes some willpower to be able to give up at least a small part of personal benefits in favor of the interests of other people (altruism can also extend to other natural objects, in particular animals).

To develop altruistic behavior, you can participate in volunteer activities - care for seriously ill people, orphans, animals, work in hospitals, nursing homes, etc. You can engage in human rights activities, solving the problems of other people, fighting injustice.

In the old days, and even now in traditional societies, people went to monasteries to develop altruistic behavior. At the same time, they “renounced the world,” that is, personal benefits, and devoted themselves to “serving God”—this meant sacrificial and selfless service to the entire world around them, in particular, helping the sick, the poor, and other people in need. However, very often altruistic activity in monasteries gave way to purely ritual practice: prayers, rituals, fruitless sermons, reading “sacred literature.” Belief in the supernatural distorts and dulls understanding of the true problems of other people and sharply reduces the willingness to help those in need. In many nations, priests, priests and monks were often portrayed as arrogant, greedy, selfish, insensitive and cruel, although religious moral precepts persistently called for the opposite behavior.