Sensation - concept, classification and functions

Concept Basics

Sensations reflect properties of the surrounding world that are important for the human body. Analyzers, which are usually called sense organs, are adapted from birth to receive and process different energies. It manifests itself in the form of an irritant - chemical, physical or mechanical. Different types of sensations reflect the actions of those stimuli that affect them.

Sensations are divided according to their qualities into olfactory, tactile, gustatory, visual and auditory. Muscles make themselves known through proprioceptive sensations; they report tissue contraction and relaxation.

The sense of balance helps determine the position of the body relative to gravitational forces.

Sensations are formed under the influence of stimuli on specific receptors. This concept refers to the reaction of the nervous system to external phenomena of the material world. Reflexes occur only when there is physical or psychological impact on a specific analyzer. Its complex includes three departments:

• peripheral;
• affective and efferent nerves;
• subcortical and cortical.

Peripheral receptors are transformers of energy coming from the surrounding world into nervous processes. Centripetal and centrifugal nerves connect the first complex to the central system. The brain end of the analyzer processes incoming nerve impulses.

The last section contains the nucleus, in which the bulk of the receptors are concentrated. It consists of scattered cells located in different parts of the cortex. The main function of the core is fine synthesis and analysis, and its elements are responsible for the gross process. But for a barely noticeable movement of the body to occur, the entire analyzer must work as a single whole.

Motor sensations (kinesthetic)

Nbsp; Report on the subject “Psychology” on the topic: “Sensations” Teacher: Turgel V.A. Prepared by: Kolesnikova M.Yu. Sokolova T.A. Kadetskaya O.N. Volkhov 2020 Contents: 1. Definition of sensation 2. Types of sensations 3. Properties (characteristics) of sensations 4. Diagnostic methods, diagnostic criteria 5. List of sources used

Definition of sensation

S.L. Rubinstein wrote: “Sensation is, firstly, the initial moment of a sensorimotor reaction; secondly, the result of conscious activity, differentiation, isolation of individual sensory qualities within perception.”

Most often, the definition of sensation is that it is an elementary mental process consisting of reflecting individual properties of objects in the material world, as well as the internal states of the body under the direct influence of stimuli on the corresponding receptors. There are at least four main points in this definition.

First definition: sensation is an elementary mental process. The word “elementary” here means the relative simplicity of sensation as one of the manifestations of the psyche (for example, the sensation of light, color, sound, smell, etc.) in comparison with more complex mental processes (such as memories, ideas, mental acts, changes in emotional condition, etc.).

Second definition: sensation is a reflection not of objects of the material world, but only of individual properties, signs, characteristics of these objects. In other words, we cannot say: “I sense this table, window, room, etc.” (objects in their integrity can only be perceived). At the same time, it would sound quite correct: “I feel the smoothness (roughness) and hardness of the surface of this table, its color and other individual properties.”

Third definition: sensation consists of a subjective reflection of not only external influences, but also internal states of the body, such as a feeling of fullness of the stomach or bladder, heartbeat, lack of air, pain from any internal organs, etc. To reflect internal state of the body is served by a specialized interoceptive sensory system (visceral sensitivity system)

Finally, the fourth definition: turning once again to the definition of sensation given above, we see that sensation can arise only through the direct action of stimuli on the corresponding receptors. This distinguishes it from such manifestations of the psyche as memories, ideas, images of imagination and fantasy, etc.

Types of sensations

In psychology, sensation is a reality that affects our senses. Today, there are about two dozen different sensory organs that reflect the impact on the human body. All types of sensations are the result of exposure to various stimuli on the receptors.

Varieties of sensations

Sensations are divided into external and internal .

The first group is what our senses tell us about the world, and the second is what our own body signals to us.

External senses include visual, gustatory, olfactory, tactile and auditory.

Visual sensations are the sensation of color and light. All objects that surround us have some color, while a completely colorless object can only be one that we cannot see at all. As a result of the influence of light rays on the sensitive part of our eye (the retina), visual sensations arise.

Auditory sensations.

There are three types of such sensations: musical, speech and noise. In all these cases, the auditory analyzer identifies four qualities of any sound: its strength, pitch, timbre and duration. In addition, he perceives the tempo-rhythmic features of sounds perceived sequentially. Phonemic hearing is the ability to perceive speech sounds. Its development is determined by the speech environment in which the child is raised. Well-developed phonemic hearing significantly influences the accuracy of written speech, especially during primary school, while a child with poorly developed phonetic hearing makes many mistakes when writing.

A baby’s musical ear is formed and develops in the same way as speech or phonemic hearing. The early introduction of a child to musical culture plays a huge role here. A certain emotional state of a person can create various noises. For example, the sound of the sea, rain, howling wind or rustling leaves. Noises can serve as a signal of danger, such as the hiss of a snake, the noise of an approaching car, or the menacing barking of a dog, or they can signal joy, such as the thunder of fireworks or the footsteps of a loved one. In school practice, they often talk about the negative impact of noise - it tires the student’s nervous system.

Tactile sensations are skin sensations of touch and temperature, that is, a feeling of cold or warmth. Each type of nerve endings located on the surface of our skin allows us to feel the temperature of the environment or touch. Of course, the sensitivity of different areas of the skin varies. For example, the chest, lower back and abdomen are more susceptible to the feeling of cold, and the tip of the tongue and fingertips are most susceptible to touch; the back is least susceptible.

Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. Thus, a positive feeling is accompanied by average temperatures, despite the fact that the emotional colors of heat and cold differ significantly. Warmth is regarded as a relaxing feeling, while cold, on the contrary, is invigorating.

Olfactory sensation (Smell) is the ability to sense smells. In the depths of the nasal cavity there are special sensitive cells that help recognize odors. Olfactory sensations play a relatively small role in modern humans. However, for those who are deprived of any sense organ, the rest work more intensely. For example, deaf-blind people are able to recognize people and places by smell and receive signals of danger using their sense of smell.

The sense of smell can also signal to a person that danger is nearby. For example, if there is a smell of burning or gas in the air. A person’s emotional sphere is greatly influenced by the smells of the objects around him. By the way, the existence of the perfume industry is entirely determined by the aesthetic need of a person for pleasant smells. The senses of taste and smell are closely related to each other, since the sense of smell helps determine the quality of food, and if a person has a runny nose, then all the dishes offered will seem tasteless to him.

Taste sensations . They arise due to irritation of the taste organs. These are the taste buds, which are located on the surface of the pharynx, palate and tongue. There are four main types of taste sensations: bitter, salty, sweet and sour. A series of shades that arise within these four sensations gives the taste originality to each dish. The edges of the tongue are sensitive to sour, its tip to sweet, and its base to bitter.

It should be noted that taste sensations are significantly influenced by the feeling of hunger. If a person is hungry, then tasteless food seems much more pleasant.

Internal sensations.

This group of sensations lets a person know what changes are occurring in his own body. Interoceptive sensation is an example of an internal sensation. It tells us that we experience hunger, thirst, pain, etc. In addition, there are also motor, tactile sensations and a sense of balance. Of course, interoceptive sensation is a vital ability for survival. Without these sensations, we would know nothing about our own body.

Motor sensations (kinesthetic)

They determine that a person feels the movement and position in space of parts of his body. With the help of the motor analyzer, a person has the ability to feel the position of his body and coordinate its movements. Receptors of motor sensations are located in the tendons and muscles of a person, as well as in the fingers, lips, and tongue, because these organs need to make subtle and precise working and speech movements.

Organic sensations.

This type of sensation tells us how the body works. Inside organs, such as the esophagus, intestines and many others, there are corresponding receptors. While a person is healthy and well-fed, he does not feel any organic or interoceptive sensations. But when something is disrupted in the body, they manifest themselves in full. For example, abdominal pain appears if a person has eaten something that is not very fresh.

Tactile sensations . This type of feeling is caused by the fusion of two sensations - motor and skin. That is, tactile sensations appear when you feel an object with a moving hand.

Equilibrium

This sensation reflects the position that our body occupies in space. In the labyrinth of the inner ear, which is also called the vestibular apparatus, when the body position changes, lymph (a special fluid) oscillates.

The organ of balance is closely related to the work of other internal organs. For example, with strong stimulation of the balance organ, a person may experience nausea or vomiting. This is otherwise called air sickness or seasickness. The stability of the balance organs increases with regular training.

Painful sensations.

The feeling of pain has a protective value, as it signals that something is wrong in the body. Without this type of sensation, a person would not even feel serious injuries. The anomaly is considered complete insensitivity to pain. It does not bring anything good to a person, for example, he does not notice that he is cutting his finger or putting his hand on a hot iron. Of course, this leads to permanent injuries.

Types of sensations

Psychophysiological processes and different sense organs are responsible for displaying the state of the body. As a result, different types of sensations arise:

• sense of smell;
• taste;
• touch;
• vision;
• hearing.

The sense of smell is the sensitivity that makes it possible to determine the smell of an object. This is the most ancient and simple sensation, and it is vital for humans and animals. With the help of smell, primitive people could determine the danger of unfamiliar things . An unpleasant smell has always been associated with something negative.

Taste is determined by receptors located in the mouth or on the tongue. A person is able to distinguish between bitter, salty, sweet and sour foods, as well as identify combinations. The sense of touch is based on multimodal information. The skin can distinguish the intensity of touch, the temperature of the air and surrounding objects, pressure, and pain. This is the most important source of knowledge about the mechanical properties of things and space.

With the help of vision, a person receives information about the world through electromagnetic radiation and the range of light. There are many complex processes going on in the visual system. They begin with the transmission of light energy to photoreceptors and end with the perception of images. Hearing helps living beings navigate space and distinguish sounds. The process is based on the work of the corresponding analyzer associated with the efferent systems. It helps to perceive air vibrations with the hearing organs.

General characteristics of sensations

The situations described above represent only probable combinations of images received from different senses. In fact, each of them has its own specifics and properties, so it is impossible, for example, to confuse sound with taste.

This is interesting: who is a humanist, how to define him?

But despite significant differences in the types and properties of sensations, common characteristics can be identified:

1. Quality is a set of modalities inherent in a specific sensation. For taste, these can be the categories “sour” or “salty”, and for a visual image, brightness, contrast, color saturation.
2. The intensity of sensation, which is contained within the boundaries of the lower and upper absolute threshold of sensitivity. This is, accordingly, the smallest and largest impact of the stimulus adequately perceived by the senses.
3. The duration of a sensation, determined by the duration and intensity of the stimulus. The peculiarity of this characteristic is that the impact of the stimulus is not simultaneous with the emergence of a sensation, which occurs later. At the same time, when the stimulus is eliminated, the image does not disappear, but continues to be transmitted to the brain by inertia.
4. Spatial localization includes two dimensions: the minimum possible size of the stimulus (a person will not feel a speck of dust settling on his shoulder, but will accurately determine that a raindrop fell instead of a speck of dust) and the maximum possible distance between the stimulus and the object that perceives it (for example, a person can see a flash of lightning, but is not always able to hear the accompanying clap of thunder).
5. Emotional tone. For example, excessively loud music causes unpleasant sensations, as do sharp flashes of bright light, which were often used for nefarious purposes under totalitarian political regimes. On the other hand, warm spring sun or cool water in extreme heat brings pleasure.

This is interesting: the type of temperament is choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic. What are the differences?

It should be separately noted what ideas exist about the threshold of sensations in psychology. Apart from the purely utilitarian definition used to postulate a definition of the intensity of sensation, there are other consequences of the very fact of the existence of thresholds of perception. One of the most important findings is that there is a clear relationship between the absolute lower threshold and the sensitivity of the analyzer: the lower the threshold, the higher the sensitivity. This is easily explained: difficulties in obtaining the necessary information require the development of methods for obtaining it.

The last consideration is confirmed not only by logical operations, but also by scientific data. Thus, it has been established that the sense organs not only improved in the process of evolution, but also improve in the ontogenesis (individual development) of each individual. Of course, different analyzers have different sensitivities.

The relationship and implementation of the above characteristics of sensations depends on many factors. An important role in their combination is played by the age, health and operating conditions of the individual. It is assumed that in absolute darkness, a healthy young person is able to distinguish a very weak source of light (for example, a torch or a candle) at a distance of up to 27 km. With age or the presence of diseases, this figure inevitably decreases.

The sense organs make it possible not only to register the presence/absence of a stimulus, but also make it possible to record differences in strength and intensity between two stimuli. This value is called the difference threshold and is relative. This is manifested in the fact that in order to realize the change that has occurred in the perception of the stimulus, it is necessary to make a certain increment to the latter, depending on the initial force of influence. Simply put, the greater the value of the initial irritation, the greater the increment required.

Accepted classification

A common classification of sensations is based on their modality or specificity. The sense organs are divided into auditory, tactile, visual, gustatory, olfactory, vestibular, visceral and motor. Synesthesia is considered intermodal.

A popular classification based on the location of receptors, created by Sherrington. According to his system, sensations are divided into several types:

• interoceptive;
• proprioceptive;
• exteroceptive.

Interoceptive signals are perceived by receptors located in internal organs and soft tissues. They are able to explain the state of the body. Proprioceptive sensations are reactions that provide information about the position of the body in space and its movements. Sensory analyzers are located in muscles and ligaments.

Receptors of exteroceptive sensations are located throughout the surface of the body. They are divided into two groups: distant and contact. The first to react to stimuli that are located at a distance from the person. These include the visual, olfactory and auditory senses. The latter perceive the impact only through direct contact - touch and taste.

According to Head's genetic structure, sensitivity is divided into protopathic and epicritic. The first type is primitive; it is less localized and differentiated. Protopathic sensations are also called organic: these are hunger, thirst and everything that in any way affects a person’s life. All other senses belong to the rational and objectified epicritic type.

In psychology, modality is interpreted as a characteristic of sensations, ideas, perceptions, which indicates their belonging to specific receptors. According to this criterion, several types of feelings are divided:

• visual;
• taste;
• skin;
• organic.

With the help of vision, a person determines colors and differences in brightness. The receptor in this case is the retina of the eye, and the cortical part of the analyzer is located in the back of the head. Cones distinguish all shades of the color table; rods are necessary for orientation in the dark. Taste is perceived by the tongue: at its tip there are cells that recognize sweet food, the definition of salty and sweet depends on the root, the edges reveal acid.

Skin senses include tactile, thermal and pain sensations. Organic ones are represented by interoreceptors that determine hunger and satiety, nausea and suffocation, pain and pleasant touches.

§ 13. Interaction of sensations

Sensitivity to any stimulus is highly dependent on other sensations available at the moment. This dependence is very complex, and not all the laws governing it have been studied at present. But one simple rule applies in most cases. Weak stimuli increase sensitivity to other, simultaneously acting stimuli, while strong stimuli reduce this sensitivity.

If I have to see some weakly luminous point in the dark, then I will see it more easily when there are other weakly luminous points in the field of view. If there is a fairly strong light in the field of view, this makes it difficult to see a faint light. Sensations from other senses have a similar effect on visual sensitivity: low sounds, light taste or temperature sensations increase visual sensitivity, while very strong sounds or sudden cooling and heating reduce it.

The fact that weak stimuli increase sensitivity to other, simultaneously acting stimuli is explained by the irradiation of the excitatory process, which increases excitation in the surrounding areas (irradiation, as was shown by Pavlov, is most significant precisely under the action of weak stimuli). More powerful stimuli, due to negative induction, cause inhibition of surrounding areas, and as a result, sensitivity to other stimuli decreases.

One of the most striking manifestations of the interaction of sensations is the contrast of sensations. After a sweet cake, the apple seems sour, but if eaten before the cake, it would seem sweet. After the salt solution, distilled water seems sweetish. A gray rectangle on a white background appears darker than on a black one. The same gray rectangle on a red background will appear greenish, on a yellow background it will appear bluish, etc.

Due to contrast, the sensation changes in the direction opposite to neighboring or previous sensations. Colors lighten on a dark background, and darken on a light background. Contrast enhances the difference between adjacent or successive sensations. This is of great importance in the process of perception, since sensations are more sharply separated from each other.

Various cases of contrast find their explanation in the light of the teachings of I.P. Pavlov. The increase in differences between stimuli is based on inductive relationships between the opposing processes of excitation and inhibition. The influence of mutual induction of excitation and inhibition in the cortical part of the analyzer is manifested both in cases of simultaneous contrast (simultaneous induction) and in cases of sequential contrast (sequential induction). I. P. Pavlov o.

Properties and phenomena

Sensitivity is the ability to reflect the influence of surrounding objects on the human body. And during the interaction of various sensations, some phenomena arise:

• adaptation;
• sensitization;
• synesthesia.

The first concept means a change in sensations due to constant exposure to a stimulus or regular training. During sensitization, when one analyzer is exposed to another, the sensitivity changes. And with synesthesia, sensations characteristic of one system are transferred to another complex.

Different types of sensations are distinguished by common properties:

• quality;
• intensity;
• spatial localization;
• duration.

The peculiarity of quality lies in the difference between one type of sensation and another. Hearing is characterized by the volume, pitch and timbre of sounds. Vision separates elementary objects by color hue, brightness and saturation. Everything that is included in the qualitative diversity reflects and explains the constant movement of matter.

Intensity characterizes the amount of sensations, determines the functional state and strength of the stimulus that affects a person. Duration determines the time during which the environment affects the body. The intensity of pressure and the state of the sensory organs depend on this property. The sensations do not appear immediately, but after some time. This phenomenon is called the latent period.

Spatial localization is carried out by distant receptors. They can indicate the location of the stimulus. Taste, pain and tactile sensations appear only on the part of the body that is affected. At the same time, their localization differs . A person feels pain less accurately relative to the skin area than pleasant touches. For example, heat from the palm is felt only in the area where it is applied. And the pain from a cut covers a larger area than the damage itself.

Properties of sensations

They are responsible for the human condition during their exposure. In philosophy it is called by the following names:

Modality

Responsible for the quality of sensation characteristics. Is the main feature located in each specific sensation. Has the function of distributing one sensation from another. An example for hearing would be the timbre of the voice and its volume.

Intensity

Responsible for the number of characteristics. You can determine the strength of the stimulus acting on an object.

Localization

Is a spatial characteristic. Its property is to indicate the location of the source of the stimulus.

Duration

Is a temporary characteristic. Its property is to indicate the time period of exposure to a stimulus.

Sensitivity measurement

Sensitivity is determined by identifying the minimal stimulus that, under specific conditions, causes sensation. The lower threshold is the smallest force with which another object acts on the body.

It indicates the level of absolute sensitivity of a particular analyzer. There is an inverse relationship between the two concepts. The indicators are calculated according to the following scheme: E = 1/P. In this formula, E is the sensitivity value, and P is the stimulus threshold.

The upper indicator is considered to be the maximum force of influence at which a person feels adequate. The magnitude of the thresholds depends on several conditions: the strength and duration of contact with the object, the age and type of activity of the individual.

There is a minimal difference between several stimuli, causing an almost imperceptible difference in the resulting sensations. In philosophy and social science it is called the threshold of discrimination. A synonym is also used - difference threshold. This value depends on the intensity of exposure to stimuli. If it grows in geometric progression, then sensations increase in arithmetic progression.

Analyzer systems in the human body can influence each other. This interaction can be the opposite: its role is to both increase and decrease sensitivity.

The psyche begins with basic sensations, that is, the process of processing the information received on the individual properties of surrounding objects. These include taste, sounds, appearance, texture. Psychologists call this level of processing sensory. It gives a brief idea of ​​the stimulus; in this case there is no complete picture.

When studying receptors as the body and human existence developed, scientists tried to understand the process of converting physical effects on the body and thinking into feelings. The founder of the research was G. T. Fechner, he studied the origin of feelings and the relationship between the mental and the physical.

Sensitivity thresholds

To feel the impact of any stimulus, it must have a certain intensity and magnitude (at a great distance, a human whisper will not be heard by the interlocutor). Let me give you the following situation as an example:

Ask your interlocutor at a distance how your day went. He is unable to hear your question due to the lack of intensity. You raise the volume of your voice, expecting it to be enough. The interlocutor will begin to hear unintelligible speech, or rather, hear sounds. He was able to use his hearing, but when the volume was lowered, he again could not hear anything. Such sensations are called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. In simple terms, it is a barely noticeable force of irritation caused by a barely noticeable sensation. Over time, selecting the required volume level will begin to get boring, since the interlocutor is constantly hard of hearing. Assuming that you do not want to close the distance with the interlocutor, you will have to greatly increase the volume level by shouting, but at the moment there is another person next to you. He, in turn, heard you more than well, so much so that his ears felt pain. Such sensations are called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity. The maximum strength of the stimulus is too high and may cause pain.

The concept of feeling thresholds is the ability of analyzers to reflect individual properties of stimuli or subtle differences between them. The science that studies the thresholds of sensations is called psychophysics.

The absolute threshold of sensations is responsible for the minimum magnitude of the stimulus, during which sensations begin to arise. If the stimulus does not reach the threshold, then it is not felt. An example is dust falling on the skin.

A weaker stimulus has less potential to influence sensations.

The difference threshold is responsible for the minimal movement of changes in the intensity of stimuli and causes very faint changes in sensations.

Difference sensitivity is a relative value. There is a conclusion by Ernest Weber that a person does not perceive differences in objects, but the ratio of differences to the magnitude of comparison of objects.

Individual sensations

Adaptation

Talks about the influence of adapting analyzers to existing stimuli, changing their sensitivity. This happens in two cases: increased and decreased sensitivity.

Adaptation is present in all manifestations and types of sensations. Vision, smell, skin sensations and taste are more noticeable. The organ of hearing is the least expressive. An example is that it takes time to adapt to bright sunlight when leaving a dark room. Also remember, after spending a long time in a room where it stank, this smell haunts us for a long time after leaving the fetid room.

Sensitization

Responsible for increased sensitivity of analyzers working under the influence of mental factors. It manifests itself during the interaction of various analyzers. Under certain conditions, this is associated with an increase in the sensitivity of one specific organ with the simultaneous functioning of another sensory organ. An example would be the feeling of cold. During its exposure, hearing and vision will be sharpened, but at high temperatures and stuffiness, the sensitivity of these sensations will decrease.

It is very common to find people with compensation or reimbursement. It usually occurs when one of the sensory organs stops functioning. Let's say a person has lost his sight, but through compensation he has sharpened his hearing and sense of smell.